Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform (GFN-SSR)

What role may ill-conceived, externally driven stabilisation efforts play in prolonging the Somali conflict? What can be learned from disarmament and demobilisation efforts in southern Somalia, Puntland and Somaliland? This article finds that externally driven initiatives have been viewed with suspicion and alarm, while Somali-led, locally owned initiatives have achieved some success. Conventional international approaches to state-building in Somalia must be reassessed. Security sector issues must be treated not as purely technical, but as integral to the political process.

Author: Matt Bryden | Jeremy Brickhill Source: Bryden, M. and Brickhill J., 2010, 'Disarming Somalia: Lessons in Stabilisation from a Collapsed State', Conflict, Security and Development, vol.10, no. 2, pp 239-262 Size: 24 pages (200 kB)
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What are the challenges and risks involved in the reintegration of insurgents in Afghanistan? This paper argues that reintegration is more complex and difficult to accomplish than is commonly appreciated. Obstacles include lack of trust, insurgent cohesion and revenge attacks. A well-executed reintegration scheme could have social and economic benefits and reduce insurgency. But if mishandled, it could do the reverse. Without intelligent design, effective delivery and political resolve, reintegration has the potential to exacerbate security problems, undermine high-level talks and even increase insurgent recruitment.

Author: Matt Waldman Source: Waldman, M., 2010, 'Golden Surrender: The Risks, Challenges, and Implications of Reintegration in Afghanistan', Discussion Paper 03/2010, Afghanistan Analysts Network, Kabul Size: 12 pages (277 KB)
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What are the links between disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR) and Security Sector Reform (SSR)? This research paper argues that there is a complementary relationship between DDR and SSR. Few attempts have been made to link the two interventions at conceptual and policy levels in Africa. But DDR and SSR share the same objectives of contributing to peace and stability and have major impacts on each other in demobilisation and reintegration phases. DDR cannot be implemented in isolation of broader processes of post-conflict peace building. It must be integrated with SSR from the inception phase of the peace process.

Author: W. Andy Knight Source: Knight, W. A., 2010, 'Linking DDR and SSR in Post Conflict Peace-building in Africa: An Overview', in African Journal of Political Science and International Relations, vol. 4, no.1, pp. 29-54 Size: 26 pages (1.2 MB)
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How can armed violence be reduced in post-conflict situations? Are disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) and small arms control programmes the most effective approach? This article from the Journal of International Peacekeeping argues that the effectiveness of DDR and small arms control programmes is unproven. Reducing armed violence in the aftermath of conflict requires a broader approach, which responds to the heterogeneous character of such violence.

Author: Robert Muggah | Keith Krause Source: Muggah R., Krause K., 2009, 'Closing the Gap Between Peace Operations and Post-Conflict Insecurity:Towards a Violence Reduction Agenda', International Peacekeeping, Volume 16, Issue 1, pp. 136-150 Size: 16 pages ()
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How have peace negotiations in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) addressed issues of accountability? What impact have justice initiatives had following the conclusion of each agreement? This report from the International Center for Transitional Justice examines peace negotiations in the DRC since 1999, focusing on justice and accountability. It argues that while significant efforts have been made to advance accountability in negotiations, peacemaking in the DRC has resulted in very limited justice.

Author: Laura Davis | Priscilla Hayner Source: Davis L., Hayner P., 2009, 'Difficult Peace, Limited Justice: Ten Years of Peacemaking in the DRC', International Center for Transitional Justice Size: 44 pages (235 kB)
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What lessons does the experience of transforming the security system in Sierra Leone have for security sector reform (SSR)? This report from the Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform documents Sierra Leone's security system transformation from 1997 to 2007. It chronicles the UK Government's intervention, including its transition from direct implementer to adviser, and analyses key security issues that arose during the period. Sierra Leone's experience shows how dedicated, capable people, given the space to reform their security institutions, can achieve a great deal under challenging circumstances.

Author: Peter Albrecht | Paul Jackson Source: Albrecht P., Jackson P., 2009, 'Security System Transformation in Sierra Leone, 1997-2007', The Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform (GFN-SSR), University of Birmingham, UK Size: 228 pages (1.68 MB)
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Despite Nepal's 2006 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) targeting rehabilitation of children from armed group associations, the government has failed to implement satisfactory reintegration. This paper, published by the Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, reviews the current status of the reintegration of Children Associated with Armed Forces and Armed Groups (CAAFAG). State failure to tackle deep-rooted inequality and structural problems continues to allow armed movements to recruit marginalised groups, including children, and consequently flourish.

Author: O. Housden | Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies (IPCS) Source: Housden, O., 2009, 'In a Weak State: Status and Reintegration of Children Associated with Armed forces and Armed Groups (CAAFAG) in Nepal', IPCS Research Paper, Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Delhi Size: 19 pages (183kB)
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Afghanistan's forthcoming elections in August 2009 and 2010 present a formidable challenge if they are to produce widely accepted and credible results. This paper, published by the International Crisis Group, reviews the steps necessary to foster public confidence in the presidential and provincial assembly elections. Pre-election focus must include strengthening security provision and electoral staff capacity and building consensus on how the political system can be made more functional and representative.

Author: International Crisis Group Source: International Crisis Group, 2009, 'Afghanistan's Election Challenges', Asia Report No.171, International Crisis Group Size: 40 pages (1.4 MB)
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What progress has recently been made in Nepal's peace process? This report, by the United Nations Secretary General, reviews progress since January 2009 and gives specific consideration to the implementation of the mandate of the United Nations Mission in Nepal (UNMIN). It highlights the progress made on the constitution drafting process and the reintegration of Maoist army personnel. However, it notes with concern the continued culture of impunity with regards to human rights abuses committed during and since the end of the conflict.

Author: UN Secretary General Source: UN Secretary General, 2009, 'Report of the Secretary-General on the request of Nepal for United Nations assistance in support of its peace process', United Nations, S/2009/221 Size: 15 pages (208kB)
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The connection between community security and Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR), is largely omitted in current policy and is unexplored in both academic and policy literature. This report, by the Peace Security and Development Network, reviews the existing literature on this link and identifies a number of weaknesses in DDR processes that stem from a lack of focus on community security. Local actors have limited influence on donors and national governments, which limits the possibilities for DDR programmes to reinforce community security arrangements, and vice versa.

Author: Rens Willems | Willemijn Verkoren Source: Willems R., Verkoren W., Derks M., Kleingeld J., Frerks G., Rouw H., 2009, 'Security Promotion in Fragile States: Can Local Meet National?', Peace, Security & Development (PSD) Network Size: 142 pages (1.1 MB)
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Despite the fact that negotiating security issues is a political endeavour, security concerns must be given high priority in peace processes. This Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue paper presents a collection of voices and experiences on security issues in recent peace processes in Colombia, Uganda-Sudan and Azerbaijan-Armenia. Rather than limiting their role to post-agreement implementation, development agencies should facilitate more appreciation of security arrangements and options for parties to peace processes.

Author: Cate Buchanan (ed.) Source: Buchanen C. (ed.), 2009, 'Reflections on Guns, Fighters and Armed Violence in Peace Processes', Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Geneva, Switzerland: Viewpoints, vol. 2 - Negotiating Disarmament Size: 34 pages ()
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The future of Nepal depends on building a peaceful, democratic state that can overcome the recent conflict and provide a stable environment for economic and social development. Yet there is little consensus about what shape reform should take. This publication from the Nepal Institute for Policy Studies, supported by Saferworld, brings together eight papers by security analysts. It explains the background to the concept of security sector reform (SSR) and looks at what SSR means for Nepal. It considers the key security challenges facing the country and how SSR programmes might address them.

Author: Rajan Bhattarai (ed.) | Rosy Cave (ed.) Source: Bhattara R., Cave R. (eds.), 2009, 'Changing Security Dynamics in Nepal', Saferworld and Nepal Institute for Policy Studies Size: 226 pages (908 kB)
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What are the links between politics and security sector reform (SSR) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)? This chapter argues that SSR should be understood as a political process, rather than as a purely technical issue. Obstacles to reform include the absence of effective oversight mechanisms and donor fragmentation. SSR efforts (encompassing the army, police, military, and civil and criminal justice) need to be scaled up in the DRC to foster long-term peace and security.

Author: Caty Clément Source: Clément, C., 2009, 'Security Sector Reform in the DRC: Forward to the Past', in Security Sector Reform in Challenging Environments, eds. H. Born and A. Schnabel, Lit Verlag, Munster, Germany, pp89-117 Size: 29 pages (220 KB)
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Can the concept of Security Sector Reform (SSR) be applied to Colombia? How should such reforms be implemented? This chapter outlines the limited SSR process in Colombia, which has concentrated on increasing the effectiveness of the state in fighting internal conflict, not necessarily on improving democratic governance. The need to extend and complete SSR in Colombia is indicated by: the absence of parliamentary oversight; limited space for civil society involvement; government and security actors' limited acceptance of the rule of law; and a lack of provision for the treatment of non-statutory security forces.

Author: Wolf Grabendorff Source: Grabendorff, W., 2009, 'Limited Security Sector Reform in Colombia', in Security Sector Reform in Challenging Environments, eds H. Born and A. Schnabel, Lit Verlag, Münster, pp 69-86 Size: 19 pages (2.65 MB)
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How is post-conflict reintegration in Liberia affected by gender bias? How can such bias be overcome? This article argues that underlying the Liberian DDR process are gendered assumptions, such as that the idleness of male ex-combatants is a security threat, and that men's reintegration is more important than that of women. Reintegration programming has privileged male access to the formal economy, overlooking the high percentage of female ex-combatants, the shortage of formal employment, and the importance of the informal economy (particularly to women). Contested perceptions of women's roles and capabilities in war and peace must not be perpetuated.

Author: Kathleen M. Jennings Source: Jennings, K. M., 2009, 'The political economy of DDR in Liberia: a gendered critique', Conflict, Security and Development, Vol.9, No.4, pp.475-494. Size: 19 pages (170 kB)
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What are the major challenges in demilitarising militias in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)? This paper for the African Security Review analyses the militias currently active in North and South Kivu (the Kivus), in the eastern DRC. The war in DRC officially ended in 2003 and a fragile peace has been established. However, the Kivu regions of the east are still plagued by endemic violence. New militias have appeared outside the original peace agreement. The international community must support the DRC in containing these militias, and be more proactive in preventing illegal arms trafficking into the DRC.

Author: Monika Thakur Source: Thakur, M., 2008, 'Demilitarising militias in the Kivus (eastern Democratic Republic of Congo)', African Security Review Vol 17 No 1, pp.52-67, Institute for Security Studies, Praetoria, South Africa Size: 16 pages (504 kB)
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What are the common problems in negotiating and implementing disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR) programmes during peace processes? What lessons can be learned from experience to strengthen practice? This book by the Centre for Human Dialogue (HD Centre) provides first-hand observations on the negotiation of security issues in the El Salvador peace process and mediation in Aceh, Indonesia.

Author: Cate Buchanan Source: Buchanan, C. (ed.), 2008, 'Reflections on Guns, Fighters and Armed Violence in Peace Processes', Negotiating Disarmament Viewpoints Volume 1, Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 38 pages (1.3 MB)
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Is the strategy of integrating former rebels into a new national army the way to sustain peace agreements? This study, by Yale University, provides the first systematic study of rebel-military integration agreements. It analyses the conditions under which such agreements can be reached and implemented, and considers if and how such agreements can help build peace. It suggests that rebel-military integration has not been an effective peacebuilding mechanism, but this is often due to poor implementation of the agreements.

Author: Katherine Glassmyer | Nicholas Sambanis Source: Sambanis, N. and Glassmyer, K., 2008, 'Rebel-Military Integration and Civil War Termination', Journal of Peace Research, vol. 45, no. 3, pp. 365-384 Size: 21 pages ()
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How does Colombia's Justice and Peace Law balance the needs for peace and justice? To what extent does the paramilitary demobilisation process meet international standards for justice, truth and reparations? This paper from the Fundación para les Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior examines Colombia's Justice and Peace Law in relation to justice, truth and reparation. It argues that while the law uses the language of human rights and justice, it is lacking in mechanisms to put these principles into practice.

Author: Felipe Gómez Isa Source: Gómez Isa, F., 2008, 'Paramilitary Demobilisation in Colombia: Between Peace and Justice', FRIDE Working Paper 57, Madrid, Spain Size: 28 pages (387 kB)
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How should disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes be implemented? This School for a Culture of Peace report argues that DDR should be seen less as a technical procedure and more as a process dependent on the context of where it is implemented. The paper therefore aims to draw lessons from a comparative analysis of DDR programmes in 19 countries.

Author: Albert Caramés | Eneko Sanz Source: Caramés, A. & Sanz, E. (2008) 'DDR 2008: Analysis of Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programmes in the World during 2007', School for a Culture of Peace, Autonomous University of Barcelona, UAB, Spain. Size: 165 pages (1.3 MB)
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How have integrated approaches to disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) been applied in the case of Sudan? Despite significant recent progress, DDR cannot be described as a total success. This Saferworld report reviews the design and implementation of the first phase of DDR programming in Sudan from 2005 until the end of 2007. Much further thought and practical guidance is required on DDR if further programmes are to demonstrate more positive results.

Author: Sarah Preston | Henry Smith Source: Kefford, S., Preston, S. & Smith, H., 2008, 'Developing integrated approaches to post-conflict security and recovery: A case study of integrated DDR in Sudan', Saferworld, London, UK Size: 36 pages (455kB)
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What is the humanitarian impact of cluster munitions on civilian populations? How does cluster munition contamination affect local economies? This report from United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research highlights how post-conflict recovery and development processes can be impeded by cluster munition contamination. It shows how different groups in a population are affected physically and psychologically. The problems caused by the contamination vary according to prevailing socio-economic conditions. Poverty adds to the difficulty of trying to address the threat of the contamination effectively.

Author: United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) Source: UNIDR, 2008, 'The Humanitarian Impact of Cluster Munitions', United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) Size: 81 pages (364KB)
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Security sector reform (SSR) remains an unmet challenge for the United Nations and the international community, despite the growing demand for it in peacekeeping missions around the world. What is the way forward? This study, by the United States Institute of Peace, argues that if the United States plans to support good governance programmes in states emerging from hostilities, a comprehensive approach to SSR is needed. The United States also needs a formal inter-agency structure for managing SSR programs.

Author: Sean Mcfate Source: McFate, S., 2008, 'Securing the Future: A Primer on Security Sector Reform in Conflict Countries', United States Institute of Peace, Special Report 209, Washington DC Size: 20 pages (308 kB)
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How can Security Sector Reform (SSR) in Haiti be improved? This book chapter from the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) assesses the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), deployed in 2004. SSR is crucial to Haiti's stability and security, and while MINUSTAH's success in SSR has been limited, UN agencies have a key role to play. Areas for improvement include coordination and evaluation. Basic stability, government willingness and local ownership are essential for SSR in Haiti.

Author: Eirin Mobekk Source: Mobekk, E., 2008, 'MINUSTAH and the Need for a Context-Specific Strategy: The Case of Haiti', in Security Sector Reform and UN Integrated Missions: Experience from Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, and Kosovo, eds. H. Hänggi & V. Scherrer DCAF, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 113-168 Size: 53 pages ()
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How can Security Sector Reform (SSR) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) be improved? What SSR lessons can be learned from the DRC's United Nations Mission (MONUC)? This book chapter from the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) finds that the UN has been slow to address SSR comprehensively in the DRC, but has been hampered by the complex political and security context and the virtual collapse of the state. SSR must take place at different levels simultaneously, together with other reform processes.

Author: Nicola Dahrendorf Source: Mobekk, E., 2008, 'MONUC and the Relevance of Coherent Mandates: The Case of the DRC' in Security Sector Reform and UN Integrated Missions: Experience from Burundi, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, and Kosovo, eds. H. Hänggi & V. Scherrer DCAF, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 113-168 Size: 38 pages ()
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What is security sector reform (SSR) and how can it be successfully achieved? This report from the United States Army explains that SSR is the set of policies, plans, programmes and activities that a government undertakes to improve the way it provides safety, security and justice. It is important in order to contribute to a world of legitimate, effectively governed states that provide for the needs of their citizens and conduct activities responsibly within the international system.

Author: US Army Source: US Department of the Army, 2008, 'Security Sector Reform', chapter 6 in 'FM 3-07 Stability Operations', US Department of the Army Size: 208 pages (13.4 MB)
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What is the current state of local level justice institutions in Sierra Leone's provinces? How good is access to justice there? This study by the World Bank reviews of what is known already and analyses recent events to highlight opportunities for intervention. It argues that justice reform that works primarily with formal justice systems ignores the customary justice systems used by the majority of the population. A comprehensive approach to justice reform requires understanding of an engagement with customary systems.

Author: Pamela Dale Source: Dale, P., 2008, 'Access to Justice in Sierra Leone: A Review of the Literature', Justice for the Poor Programme, World Bank, Washington DC Size: 30 pages (254 kB)
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What is needed for Guinea-Bissau to achieve its goals of Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) and Security Sector Reform (SSR)? This briefing report, published by Observatoire de l'Afrique, highlights promising circumstances for SSR in the country, as well as difficult challenges. As Guinea-Bissau's most powerful actor, the armed forces must in effect reform themselves and take ownership of certain SSR efforts. In addition, the recent spurt of activity by international donors, and the plans to send foreign experts, must be followed up and effectively coordinated.

Author: Koen Vlassenroot (chair) Source: Observatoire de l'Afrique, 2008, 'Security Sector Reform in Guinea-Bissau', Africa Briefing Report, Egmont Palace, Brussels - 28 January 2008, Observatoire de l'Afrique, Brussels Size: 9 pages (218 kB)
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What are the key challenges facing the post-conflict reconstruction process in Liberia? This situation report, published by the Institute for Security Studies, demonstrates the progress towards peace and stability achieved since the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) of 2003. By articulating an appropriate response to the country's basic socio-economic needs, Liberian authorities are in a position to promote peaceful, sustainable development. Finally, four possible future scenarios for Liberia are projected and described, ranging from a consolidation of the peace process to renewed violence.

Author: David Zounmenou Source: Zounmenou, D., 2008, Managing Post-War Liberia: An Update, ISS Situation Report, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria Size: 15 pages (185 kB)
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What are the key obstacles to successful reintegration programmes in post-conflict countries? How can these obstacles be overcome? This report from the United States Institute of Peace makes broad recommendations based on an assessment of Colombia's 2003 disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programme for a major paramilitary group. It argues that reintegration programmes should be characterised by a justice mechanism seen as fair by all parties, and a flexible approach which allows adaption to local needs.

Author: Jonathan Morgenstein Source: Morgenstein, J., 2008, 'Consolidating Disarmament: Lessons from Colombia's Reintegration Program for Demobilized Paramilitaries', USIP, Special Report 217, Washington DC, USA Size: 16 pages (575 kB)
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How can the threat of the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA ) in northern Uganda and the surrounding region be brought to an end? This paper by ENOUGH suggests the peace strategy must enable northern Uganda to consolidate its relative peace and address the threat that Kony - the leader of the LRA - poses to the region. It must develop leverage through military planning, press Kony to make a choice about his future and create a development and security strategy for displaced northern Ugandans to return, even in the absence of a peace deal.

Author: Julia Spiegel | John Prendergast Source: Spiegel, J. and Prendergast, J., 2008, A new peace strategy for Northern Uganda and the LRA: Advancing peace in northern Uganda, ENOUGH strategy paper, ENOUGH Project, International Crisis Group and the Center for American Progress Size: 9 pages (147.85KB)
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The 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) that ended Sudan's civil war is at risk in the state of Southern Kordofan. This International Crisis Group paper analyses growing frustrations among Arab and African tribes about CPA implementation and unresolved ethnic and administrative issues. Concrete ethnic integration and reform progress by the National Congress Party (NCP), Sudan People's Liberation Movement (SPLM), Southern Kordofan Government, United Nations Mission in Sudan (UNMIS) and donors is essential in order to avoid another Darfur conflict.

Author: International Crisis Group Source: International Crisis Group, 2008, 'Sudan's Southern Kordofan Problem: The Next Darfur?', International Crisis Group, Africa Report No.145, Brussels Size: 27 pages (1.20 MB)
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The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) needs to address past human rights atrocities in order to establish peace, security and respect for human rights in the future. This study, published by the University of California, Berkeley, reports results of a population survey in areas most affected by recent conflict in eastern DRC. The Congolese government and other national and international actors need to consult the population in order to set priorities for planning the future of the DRC.

Author: Patrick Vinck | Phuong Pham Source: Vinck P., Pham P., Shigekane S.B., 2008, 'Living with Fear: A Population-Based Survey on Attitudes about Peace, Justice, and Social Reconstruction in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo', University of California - Berkeley, California, USA Size: 72 pages (713.28 KB)
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The contributions of South Sudanese women associated with armed forces during the 22-year Sudanese civil war (1983-2005) remain unrecognised and undocumented. This brief, published by the Small Arms Survey, reviews women's involvement in the conflict and the lack of official recognition of women in post-conflict programmes. The Government of South Sudan (GoSS) and United Nations' agencies need to give women priority Demobilisation, Disarmament and Reintegration (DDR) treatment and full access to employment opportunities.

Author: Small Arms Survey Source: Small Arms Survey, 2008, 'No standing, few prospects: How peace is failing South Sudanese female combatants and WAAFG', Small Arms Survey, The Human Security Baseline Assessment, Sudan Issue Brief, No. 13, Geneva Size: 8 pages (329 kB)
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A professional, effective, accountable security sector is essential to consolidate peace and security, prevent conflict, and lay the foundations for development and human rights. This report by the UN Secretary-General examines the UN's role in supporting security sector reform, arguing that a coherent UN approach to reform is vital.

Author: United Nations Secretary-General Source: Secretary-General U.N., 2008, 'Securing peace and development: the role of the United Nations in supporting security sector reform', United Nations General Assembly (A/62/659-S/2008/39) Size: 19 pages (93 kB)
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How effective are outside efforts to bring security to African countries, particularly through the use of peacekeeping troops? This study from the German Institute of Global and Area Studies argues that a realistic assessment must include local perspectives on peacekeepers and their relations to other (state and non-state) actors in the security arena. Peacekeepers do harm, just as they do good; and they would profit from a more systematic evaluation of the local perception of their actions.

Author: Andreas Mehler Source: Mehler A., 2008, 'Positive, ambiguous or negative? Peacekeeping in the local security fabric', Dag Hammarskjöld Foundation, pp. 40-64, No.5, Uppsala, Sweden Size: 25 pages (1.04MB)
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What role did the 2007 general elections in Sierra Leone play in the country's post-war recovery? This research from the Nordic Africa Institute and Copenhagen University shows how political parties strategically remobilised ex-combatants into security squads, both to protect themselves and to gather votes. It looks at the tactical motives behind ex-combatants' choice to join political campaigning. The 2007 elections strengthened the democratic process in Sierra Leone. However, democracy is still extremely fragile.

Author: Maya M. Christensen | Mats Utas Source: Christensen M.M. and Mats U., 2008, 'Mercenaries of democracy: The 'Politricks' of remobilized combatants in the 2007 general elections, Sierra Leone', African Affairs, Vol. 107, Issue 429, pp. 515-539 Size: 25 pages ()
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How does a rebel movement transform itself into the leading party of democratic opposition? What are the prospects of such a party? This Conflict, Security and Development publication examines the development of the Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and its emergence as the leading opposition party.

Author: Alex Vines | Bereni Oruitemeka Source: Vines A. and Oruitemeka B., 2008, 'Bullets to ballots: The reintegration of UNITA in Angola', Conflict, Security and Development, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 241- 263 Size: 24 pages ()
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How successful has the United States (US) been in achieving political reintegration in Iraq? This study from Conflict, Security and Development examines US approaches to the political reintegration of irregular armed groups, from its initial policy vacuum to the informal reintegration seen during 2007 and 2008. It shows that the best attempt at reintegration has been the arrangements between US military units and Sunni groups since 2006. Yet, since these arrangements emerged without support from the central government, they cannot be considered reconciliation or even reintegration.

Author: David Ucko Source: Ucko D., 2008, 'Militias, tribes and insurgents: The challenge of political reintegration in Iraq', Conflict, Security and Development, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 341-373 Size: 34 pages ()
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Why did the façade of Afghan disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) develop? How did the reality on the ground diverge from the bureaucratic process? What are the implications of such an approach? This Conflict, Security & Development paper examines the contradictions at the heart of DDR and successive Disbandment of Illegal Armed Groups in Afghanistan DIAG processes in Afghanistan, analysing the conflicts of interest and limited impacts.

Author: Antonio Giustozzi Source: Giustozzi A., 2008, 'Bureaucratic façade and political realities of disarmament and demobilisation in Afghanistan', Conflict, Security and Development, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 169 - 192 Size: 25 pages ()
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How can long-term peaceful political transformation of the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) in Sierra Leone be achieved? This study from King's College London argues that successful political reintegration does not simply mean political participation per se, but requires specific forms of political participation that reinforce the primacy of peaceful political interaction for affecting change. The study concludes that despite progress in many key areas, former fighters of the RUF have yet to be fully politically reintegrated.

Author: Kieran Mitton Source: Mitton K., 2008, 'Engaging disengagement: The political reintegration of Sierra Leone's Revolutionary United Front', Conflict, Security and Development, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 193-222 Size: 31 pages ()
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How have the government and the international community conducted security sector reform (SSR) in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)? Why has so little progress been made in reforming the DRC's security sector? This report from the Institute for Security Studies examines SSR in the DRC and its impact on security in the Kivu provinces. It finds that the lack of progress on SSR reveals a fundamental problem in international peacebuilding strategies, and a lack of coordination among donors. The lack of progress also both stems from and contributes to continuing violence in the eastern provinces.

Author: Hans Hoebeke | Henri Boshoff Source: Hoebeke H., Boshoff H., Vlassenroot K., 2008, 'Assessing Security Sector Reform and its Impact on the Kivu Provinces', Situation Report, Instutute for Security Studies Size: 11 pages (137 kB)
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How can mediators help to manage the impact of violence on peace processes? What steps must armed groups be prepared to take if they are serious about peaceful resolution of conflict? This publication from the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue presents insights on security issues from individuals involved in peace negotiations in Colombia, Nagorno-Karabakh and northern Uganda.

Author: Cate Buchanan Source: Buchanan C., 2008, 'Negotiating Disarmament: Reflections on Guns, Fighters and Armed Violence in Peace Processes', Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Viewpoints, Volume 2, November 2008, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 34 pages (929 kB)
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How did negotiations to end El Salvador's civil war deal with disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) and security sector reform (SSR)? What provisions did the peace agreement make for reducing the number of weapons in circulation and providing support to the victims of armed violence? This report from the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue examines how El Salvador's peace negotiations addressed issues related to guns and armed violence.

Author: Cate Buchanan | Joaquín Chávez Source: Buchanan C. and Chávez J., 2008, 'Negotiating Disarmament: Guns and Violence in the El Salvador Peace Negotiations ', Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Country Study, Number 3, March 2008, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 46 pages (1 MB)
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How were security issues managed in the Burundi Peace Talks? What lessons are there for international mediators of other conflicts? Drawing on interviews with negotiators and advisors, this Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue report concludes that it is vital to balance political and technical expertise when addressing security issues and that the interconnectedness of security issues should be recognised.

Author: Richard Barltrop | Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue Source: Barltrop R., 2008, 'The Negotiation of Security Issues in the Burundi Peace Talks', Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Country Study, Number 1, March 2008, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 54 pages (1.6 MB)
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How did Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) deal with security issues? What lessons are there for international mediators assisting other peace processes? This Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue report finds that in Sudan the parties' lack of trust led to a deliberate avoidance of commitments related to security and weapons control. In this context, there were few opportunities for international mediators to broaden the scope of the negotiations.

Author: Richard Barltrop | Centre for Human Dialogue Source: Barltrop R., 2008, 'The Negotiation of Security Issues in Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement', Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Negotiating Disarmament, Country Study, Number 2, March 2008, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 46 pages (1.2 MB)
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What is the most effective way of tackling violence and weapons issues in peace processes? This Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue report consists of four articles which put forward recommendations on how to deal with such issues when negotiating a peace agreement. The importance of understanding the local context, ensuring sustainable reintegration and dealing with arms in civilian hands is stressed in several articles.

Author: Cate Buchanan Source: Buchanan C., 2008, 'Negotiating Disarmament: Strategies for Tackling Weapons and Violence in Peace Process', Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Viewpoints, Volume 1, March 2008, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 38 pages (1.3 MB)
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What are the objectives of reintegration and how are they achieved? How does the conceptualisation of reintegration translate into practice in disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes? This article from Global Governance draws on the case of Liberia to examine the concept and practice of reintegration in post-war societies. It argues that the meaning and use of reintegration, both as a concept and a practice, is overloaded and unclear. This contributes to problematic policy responses and impedes accountability.

Author: Kathleen M. Jennings Source: Jennings K.M., 2008, 'Unclear Ends, Unclear Means: Reintegration in Postwar Societies - The Case of Liberia', Global Governance, Volume 14, Issue 3, pp. 327-345 Size: 19 pages ()
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How should non-state armed groups (NSAGs) be engaged in disarmament as part of peace negotiations? How should disarmament be introduced, addressed and ultimately achieved? This article from the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) sets out how disarmament should be dealt with in the different phases of negotiation with NSAGs. Disarmament is a particularly sensitive topic for NSAGs as giving up their weapons amounts to giving up their power. As a result, disarmament is often most effectively addressed through other topics or in parts.

Author: Julian Thomas Hottinger | UNIDIR Source: Hottinger J.T., 2008, 'Engaging non-state armed groups in disarmament', United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR), Disarmament Forum, Number 1, pp. 27-36 Size: 10 pages (132 kB)
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The difference in donor approaches to security sector reform (SSR) and its actual practice in Africa is immense. This paper, published by the African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes, reviews SSR projects in Africa with significant input from external donors. The review reveals considerable variations of approach, while a comparative analysis of SSR in Sierra Leone and Liberia contrasts the differing application of core principles of SSR in these two cases. Generally, donor SSR projects do not substantially differ from the previous piecemeal and uncoordinated approach they have traditionally adopted towards defence, policing and justice reform.

Author: Daniel Bendix | Ruth Stanley Source: Bendix D., Stanley R., 2008, 'Security Sector Reform in Africa: The Promise and the Practice of a New Donor Approach', African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD), Occasional Paper Series, Volume 3(2) Size: 58 pages (512 kB)
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Why do some refugees, upon return to their countries of origin, engage in violent action? This paper from George Mason University assumes that in some refugee situations a significant share of returnees engage in militant action. It examines three sets of explanatory factors (enabling environment, ideology and organisation) in order to contribute to an expanding analytical framework for refugee warrior phenomena, and to identify an agenda for future research.

Author: Kristian Berg Harpviken Source: Harpviken, K. B., 2008, 'From "Refugee Warriors" to "Returnee Warriors": Militant Homecoming in Afghanistan and Beyond', Global Migration and Transnational Politics, Working Paper, no. 5, George Mason University, Fairfax County, Virginia Size: 17 pages ()
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How can the prevalence of weapons in Kosovo be reduced without further damaging fragile feelings of security among the population? This report by the Forum for Civic Initiatives and Saferworld looks at changing perceptions of civilian possession and prevalence of weapons. Because of sensitivities surrounding weapons possession, any initiatives to control or collect weapons should be tailored to specific community needs to maximise opportunities for peace and minimise potential drivers of conflict.

Author: Forum for Civic Initiatives | Saferworld Source: Forum for Civic Initiatives, Saferworld, 2008, 'Through the cross-hairs: A survey of changing attitudes towards small arms in Kosovo', Forum for Civic Initiatives (Kosovo) Size: 19 pages (682KB)
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In April 2006, protests in Nepal led to the end of direct rule by the King and the ending of the so-called 'People's War', fought by the Maoists against the state since 1996. This report, published by Saferworld, attempts to highlight the important issues surrounding policing in Nepal in this context. It identifies a sense of optimism following the end of the civil conflict, and changing expectations of the police force. It argues that a balance needs to be struck between providing basic security during a period of transition, and preparing to reform Nepal's security system in the long term.

Author: Saferworld Source: Saferworld, 2008, 'Public safety and policing in Nepal: An analysis of public attitudes towards community safety and policing across Nepal', Saferworld Size: 62 pages (1.2 MB)
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What led people in Liberia to join militias and become in involved conflict during the country's terrible civil war? How can an understanding of the factors that got people 'into' violence help policymakers design more effective disarmament, demobilisation, reintegration and rehabilitation (DDRR) programmes to get them 'out'? This study, conducted with 491 ex-combatants using respondent-driven sampling, finds that assumptions of combatants' marginalisation before joining militias were inaccurate. Rather, it was mainly security concerns that caused the Liberian youth to fight. DDRR approaches are in need of re-thinking to link them more directly to social cohesion and societal security.

Author: Morten Bøås | Anne Hatløy Source: Bøås, M. and Hatløy, A., 2008, ''Getting in, Getting out': Militia Membership and Prospects for Re-integration in Post-war Liberia', Journal of Modern African Studies, vol.46. no.1, pp.33-55. Size: 23 pages (127 kB)
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The globalisation of the private security sector (PSS) and its impact on conflict and human security has no better example than Africa. This paper, authored by Sabelo Gumedze, discusses the dynamics of the private security industry, its proliferation and relative lack of regulation, and identifies forces that drive its growth. The issue of the PSS, as it exists in Africa today, must be addressed by effective regulatory mechanisms.

Author: Sabelo Gumedze Source: Gumedze, S., 2007, 'The private security sector in Africa: The 21st century's major cause for concern?', Institute for Security Studies, ISS Paper 133, Pretoria, South Africa Size: 2 pages (22.5 KB)
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Proliferation of small arms and light weapons (SALWs) continues to undermine development, the security of citizens and good governance in Africa. Author Nelson Alusala reports on the status of SALWs and disarmament in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the Central African Republic (CAR) and Chad. The monograph includes historical, political and cultural context for each country's struggles to control SALWs, and recommends actions to control SALWs and arms trafficking.

Author: Nelson Alusala Source: Alusala, N., 2007, 'Armed Conflict and Disarmament: Selected Central African Case Studies', Institute for Security Studies, ISS Monograph No 129, Pretoria, South Africa Size: 2 pages (23.0 KB)
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While each phase of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) contains challenges, the most delicate and urgent component is disarmament. Written by Peter Swarbrick, this operational manual aims to educate donors, managers and practitioners about some of the most important obstacles to successful DDR operations. Using examples from the DDR programme in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), the manual identifies common problems and practical solutions that can be applied to a variety of apparently dissimilar disarmament processes.

Author: Peter Swarbrick Source: Swarbrick, P., 2007, 'Avoiding disarmament failure: the critical link in DDR. An operational manual for donors, managers, and practitioners', Small Arms Survey, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 2 pages (23.5 KB)
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How have Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programmes improved and what lessons remain to be learned? This study from Barcelona Autonomous University's Peace Culture School is an update to the one carried out last year. Its aim is to analyse current DDR programmes in 22 countries. Current programmes have a general profile that is quite novel, in terms of the quantity of experiences existing and the number of beneficiaries and the international context in which they are produced.

Author: Albert Caramés | Vicenç Fisas Source: Caramés, A., Fisas, V., Sanz, E., 2007, 'Analysis of the Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) Programs existing in the World during 2006', School for a Culture of Peace, Barcelona Autonomous University, Barcelona, Spain Size: 39 pages (575 kB)
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Is building peace through community development a promising approach? This paper from the Chr. Michelsen Institute draws on a recent CMI evaluation of a UNDP-led programme in Ituri district in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Community development can be an effective tool to build peace, even in the midst of violence. The Ituri experience suggests that aid agencies that adopt this strategy will stand a fair chance to succeed in significantly reducing poverty-related violence.

Author: Ingrid Samset Source: Samset, I., 2007, 'A promising experience: building peace through community development', Brief, Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI), Vol.6 No.3, Norway Size: 4 pages (452KB)
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What are the key linkages between Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) and Security Sector Reform (SSR)? How can these inform the development of policy frameworks in post-conflict contexts? This paper developed on behalf of the United Nations Office of the Special Adviser on Africa presents some of the key challenges to achieving better synergies in practice between DDR and SSR. Supporting security sector governance institutions provides an important under-acknowledged means to link SSR and DDR concerns.

Author: Alan Bryden Source: Bryden, A., 2007, 'Linkage between DDR and SSR - Understanding the DDR-SSR Nexus: Building Sustainable Peace in Africa', Issue Paper at the Second International Conference on DDR and Stability in Africa, 12-14 June, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo Size: 28 pages (260 KB)
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Which factors determine whether former combatants can be successfully integrated into social and political spheres at the end of a conflict? This article published in Conflict, Security and Development compares the political reintegration of the Movimiento 19 de Abril (M-19) in Colombia in the early 1990s with the reintegration of the paramilitary a decade later. It argues that successful reintegration depends on the acceptance of relevant audiences and the capacity of former combatants to perform as social and political interlocutors.

Author: Alexandra Guáqueta Source: Guáqueta, A., 2007, 'The Way Back In: Reintegrating Illegal Armed Groups in Colombia Then and Now' Conflict, Security and Development, vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 417-456 Size: 41 pages (270 KB)
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Has the African Union (AU) embraced the responsibility to protect (R2P) in its Constitutive Act? Has it been successful in implementing R2P? This study, by the Institute for Security Studies, assesses its efforts to promote peace in Africa and to deal with emerging crises. It concludes that the AU is committed to R2P, although it is too early for a definitive judgment, since the institutions that the AU has developed to change attitudes need to be given an opportunity to work.

Author: Dr Tim Murithi Source: Murithi,T., 2007, 'The Responsibility to Protect, as Enshrined in Article 4 of the Constitutive Act of the African Union', in Conflict Prevention and the 'Responsibility to Protect' in Africa?, ISS Africa, African Security Review Vol 16 No 3, South Africa Size: 11 pages (131KB)
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General Laurent Nkunda has recently re-emerged as a threat to prospects for peace and stability in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). How can the situation best be defused? This report, by the Institute for Security Studies, suggests that the Congolese government should prioritise a political solution to the impasse rather than pursuing a military option, which can lead only to further suffering among the civilian population and further aggravate ethnic tensions.

Author: Stephanie Wolters Source: Wolters, S. 2007. 'Trouble in Eastern DRC: The Nkunda Factor', Situation Report, September 2007, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria Size: 11 pages (161KB)
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The emergence in the last decade of the human security concept has allowed security debate to refocus on the security of the individual, and to acknowledge the wider role that a range of actors play in security, including non-state actors. Children, however, remain largely invisible in the discussion. This paper from the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) links child protection imperatives to post-conflict peacebuilding and recovery. Greater recognition of specific security issues affecting children can best be achieved through strengthening existing security governance frameworks and the human rights perspective of security.

Author: David Nosworthy Source: Nosworthy, D. 2007. 'Children's security in post-conflict peace building', Discussion Paper, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), Geneva Size: 20 pages (107 kB)
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How has Uganda attempted to reintegrate abductees and former combatants from the Lord's Resistance Army (LRA) back into civilian life? This article from Conflict, Security and Development analyses disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) in northern Uganda and the challenges facing attempts to reintegrate former LRA combatants. It finds that the impact of Uganda's informal DDR process is limited by the ongoing conflict and humanitarian crisis. DDR will only succeed if it is part of a wider peacebuilding process.

Author: Anna Borzello Source: Borzello, A. 2007. 'The challenge of DDR in Northern Uganda: The Lord's Resistance Army', Conflict, Security & Development, 7(3), pp.387 - 415, Routledge, Oxford Size: 29 pages ()
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What determines the ability of ex-combatants to reintegrate into society? What impact do international disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) efforts have on reintegration? This article from the Journal of Conflict Resolution uses data on ex-combatants in Sierra Leone to analyse individual-level determinants of demobilisation and reintegration. It finds little evidence at the micro level to suggest that internationally funded DDR programmes facilitate demobilisation and reintegration.

Author: Macartan Humphreys | Jeremy M. Weinstein Source: Humphreys, M. and Weinstein, J. M. 2007. 'Demobilization and Reintegration', Journal of Conflict Resolution, 51(4), pp.531-567, Yale University, New Haven Size: 38 pages (243 kB)
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To what extent has the World Bank incorporated gender considerations into its investments in post-conflict reconstruction (PCR) situations? This paper from Gender Action examines World Bank PCR investments for gender considerations, with particular attention to Angola, Cambodia, Colombia, Iraq, Sri Lanka and Rwanda. It shows that the World Bank has integrated gender considerations into its investments to only a limited extent. The Bank must integrate into PCR: 1) women-focused activities; 2) gender aware programming; and 3) the promotion of gender equality aimed at building peaceful societies.

Author: Elaine Zuckerman | Suzanna Dennis Source: Zuckerman, E., Dennis, S. and Greenberg, M. 2007. 'The Gender Dimensions of Post-Conflict Reconstruction: The World Bank Track Record', Gender Action, Washington, D.C. Size: 68 pages (843 KB)
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Why is the peace process in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) faltering? Why have the demobilisation programmes been unsuccessful? This paper, from the School of Oriental and African Studies, analyses these problems against the background of the DRC's culture of violence, its informal politics and economy and the crises faced by ordinary people. Demobilisation programmes do not address fighters' motivations and the peace process has led to immediate gains by some parties while institutionalising destructive systems and long-term losses for the population.

Author: Zoë Marriage Source: Marriage, Z, 2007, 'Flip-flop rebel, dollar soldier: demobilisation in the Democratic Republic of Congo', Conflict, Security and Development, 7(2), pp. 281-309, Routledge Size: 30 pages ()
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What is the key to the success of Tajikistan's post-war stabilisation? This paper from Conflict, Security & Development assesses demobilisation, disarmament and reintegration (DDR) initiatives in Tajikistan. It argues Tajikistan's post-war stability is in part attributable to how the country ignored conventional emphases on political liberalisation, demobilisation and disarmament. President Rakhmonov found a way to move Tajikistan forward that matched the local context. This highlights dangers of applying universal DDR strategies in highly specific local conditions.

Author: Stina Torjesen | S. Neil MacFarlane Source: Torjesen, S. and MacFarlane, S.N. (2007). 'R before D: the case of post conflict reintegration in Tajikistan', Conflict, Security and Development, 7(2), pp. 311-332, Routledge. Size: 23 pages ()
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How can the presence of 'other armed groups' (OAGs) be dealt with in building stability in post-conflict environments? This paper from Conflict, Security & Development looks at the 'White Army' militias in Sudan, who maintained an armed presence after Sudan's Comprehensive Peace Agreement in 2005. It provides an analysis of both the forcible and voluntary disarmament strategies that were implemented by the Sudanese Government. It argues that organisations such as the UN, local government and NGOs played an important role in successful disarmament. But challenges remain in building sustainable conditions for peace.

Author: Matthew B. Arnold | Chris Alden Source: Arnold, M.B.; Alden, C. (2007). ''This gun is our food': Disarming the White Army militias of South Sudan', Conflict, Security and Development, 7(3), pp. 361-385, Routledge. Size: 26 pages ()
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What are the Integrated Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration standards (IDDRS)? This paper acts as a guideline to IDDRS. In a peacekeeping context there has been a trend towards complex operations that seek to deal with a wide variety of issues rather than traditional peacekeeping. The IDDRS provide the UN system with a set of policies, guidelines and procedures for the planning, implementation and monitoring of DDR programmes in a peacekeeping context.

Author: UNDDR Source: United Nations. 2007. Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization, and Reintegration Standards (IDDRS). New York. Size: 1 pages (26.5kb)
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The UN requires all parties to armed conflict to take special measures to protect people from sexual violence. However, this report by the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces suggests that there has been little sharing of experiences between states regarding the measures required, or on good practice in addressing crimes of sexual violence. There needs to be a coordinated effort on strategies within the security sector to prevent and respond to sexual violence in armed conflict and in post-conflict security sector reform.

Author: Megan Bastick | Karen Grimm Source: Bastick, M., Grimm, K. and Kunz, R. (2007). 'Sexual violence in armed conflict - global overview and implications for the security sector', Geneva: DCAF. Size: 216 pages ()
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Girls within armed groups have generally been neglected by scholars, governments and policymakers. This Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) paper traces the experiences of girls in armed conflict in Angola, Sierra Leone, Mozambique and Uganda. It finds that girls in fighting forces are rendered invisible and marginalised during and after conflict, although they are fundamentally important to armed groups. They experience victimisation, perpetration and insecurity, but are also active agents and resisters.

Author: Myriam Denov Source: Denov, M., 2007, 'Girls in Fighting Forces: Moving Beyond Victimhood', Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) Size: 41 pages (680 kB)
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Why are Lebanese and international efforts failing to stem the flow of weapons into Lebanon? Does the Lebanese government lack the capacity, or the will, to control its borders? This article, by the Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies, argues that Hizbullah's political ascendancy and its re-emergence as the party of resistance will ensure Hizbullah retains an armed capacity. Furthermore, the Lebanese government, regional governments and the UN are reluctant to disarm the resistance. This will hamper efforts to increase Lebanon's border monitoring capacity.

Author: Alistair Harris Source: Harris, A. 2007, 'Bordering on the Impossible: Securing Lebanon's Borders with Syria', in RUSI Journal, Oct 2007, Vol. 152, No. 5, pp. 40-44. Size: 5 pages (161 kb)
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How are drug abuse, psychological distress, and expectations of assistance among war-affected Somalis' likely to affect reintegration programmes? This study by the University of Konstanz, Germany, which accompanied a large preparatory assessment for a future DDR programme in Somalia in 2003, identifies micro level factors that are likely to affect the success or failure of a future disarmament, demobilisation, and reintegration (DDR) programme.

Author: Michael Odenwald | Harald Hinkel Source: Odenwald, M., et al., 2007, 'Challenges for a future demobilization and reintegration program in Somalia: Outcomes of an assessment on drug abuse, psychological distress and preferences for reintegration assistance', Intervention, vol. 5, no. 2, pp. 109-123 Size: 15 pages (720 kB)
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How is security sector reform progressing in Burundi? Are the principles of the Arusha peace agreement being applied? This paper, by the Centre d'Alerte et de Prévention des Conflits (CENAP) and the North-South Institute, looks at how the principles of the Arusha Agreement and the other agreements governing Burundi's peace process are being applied. It suggests that despite significant progress in security sector reform, many challenges remain in terms of operational weaknesses, lack of training and lack of logistical and material resources.

Author: Willy Nindorera Source: Nindorera, W, 2007, 'Security Sector Reform in Burundi: Issues and Challenges for Improving Civilian Protection', CENAP/NSI Working Paper, Centre d'Alerte et de Prévention des Conflicts (CENAP), Bujumbura, and The North-South Institute, Ottawa. Size: 49 pages (480KB)
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What is the nature of the new armed groups emerging in Colombia? How effective is the Colombian government's strategy of treating them simply as criminal gangs? This report from the International Crisis Group examines Colombia's new armed groups. It argues that some of these groups are acting as the next generation of paramilitaries. They require a more urgent and comprehensive response from the government, linking military action and law enforcement to improved reintegration.

Author: International Crisis Group Source: International Crisis Group, 2007, 'Colombia's New Armed Groups', Latin America Report N°20, 10 May 2007, International Crisis Group, Bogotá/Brussels Size: 38 pages (542 kB)
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How have political dynamics influenced Security Sector Reform and peacebuilding in Nepal? How can the longstanding association of the security forces with the monarchy and with oppression and opposition to democracy be overcome? This article from the Journal of Peacebuilding and Development illustrates that a key challenge following the decade of conflict is to separate the army from palace control and bring it under civilian oversight as part of the broader national process of building democratic governance. It also highlights efforts by India, China and the United States to secure a role for the monarchy in Nepal's emerging political system, and the threat this poses to internal security.

Author: Shiva K. Dhungana Source: Dhungana, S., 2007, 'Security Sector Reform and Peacebuilding in Nepal: a critical reflection', Journal of Peacebuilding and Development, Vol. 3., No. 2., pp.70-78. Size: 9 pages ()
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How can Iraq learn from Mexico's attempts to mount new policing operations and restore order after the 1910 Revolution? This study by the Crisis States Research Centre describes how the challenges of policing regime change in post-dictatorship Mexico laid the foundation for descent into chaos. When new regimes have been born out of violent conflict it is unwise to rush into constitutional reforms that give police power. In Iraq, building state institutions and making them accountable is likely to work better than constitutionally enhancing police powers.

Author: Diane E. Davis Source: Davis, D., 2007, 'Policing, Regime Change, and Democracy: Reflections from the Case of Mexico', Crisis States Working Paper No : 22 (series 2),London School of Economics, London Size: 27 pages (196KB)
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In 1999, the Colombian state was on the verge of collapse. Illegal armed groups were on the point of taking power and the state was losing control. How did Colombia get out of this crisis? This report, from the Center for Strategic and International Studies, assesses the progress that Colombia has made during the last eight years. It argues that although problems related to a longstanding tradition of weak government remain, Colombia's gains since 1999 have been extraordinary.

Author: Peter DeShazo | Tanya Primiani Source: DeShazo, P. et al, 2007, 'Back from the Brink: Evaluating Progress in Colombia, 1999-2007', Americas Program, Center for Strategic and International Studies, Washington Size: 68 pages (1.1 MB)
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Many international organisations are involved in security sector reform (SSR) in South Eastern Europe. This paper by the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of the Armed Forces (DCAF) argues that with so many similar mandates, coordination is essential to avoid duplication. With the new complexity of civilian and military peacebuilding and post-conflict reconstruction, there is an urgent need to coordinate across departmental and organisational divides. Failure to do so will jeopardise the prospects for creating stable, democratic and sustainable security institutions in South Eastern Europe.

Author: Ursula Schroeder Source: Schroeder, U., 2007, 'Between Conflict and Cooperation: International Police Reform Efforts in South Eastern Europe' in Intergovernmental Organisations and Security Sector Reform, ed. D. Law, DCAF, Geneva, pp. 197-218 Size: 21 pages (1.06MB)
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How effective has the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) been in leading Afghanistan towards security sector reform (SSR)? This paper by the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces looks at efforts to build transparent, effective and democratically controlled Afghan national defence and security institutions. NATO was late in making a serious contribution to SSR in Afghanistan and there are problems of transparency and sensitivities among other international actors. However, these need not preclude a more robust cooperation agenda among international organisations and a coordinated diplomatic approach vis-à-vis the Afghan Government.

Author: Candace Karp | Richard Ponzio Source: Karp, C. and Ponzio, R., 2007, 'NATO, SSR and Afghanistan' in Intergovernmental Organisations and Security Sector Reform, ed. D. Law, DCAF, Geneva, pp. 219-238 Size: 19 pages (1.06MB)
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The international community has succeeded in putting an end to the civil war in Sierra Leone. But why has there been so little progress in tackling corruption and the exclusion of many people from public services and resources? This report, from Chatham House, describes the building and reforming of state institutions. It argues that further progress will depend on appropriate coalitions taking opportunities for reform as they arise. The international community needs to make a long-term commitment and develop a thorough understanding of local needs.

Author: Brian Thomson Source: Thomson, B., 2007, 'Sierra Leone: Reform or Relapse? Conflict and Governance Reform', Chatham House, London Size: 48 pages (597 kB)
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How can Nigeria stop the violence and proliferation of small arms in the Niger Delta? This paper, by the Small Arms Survey, looks at the causes of armed violence in Nigeria, surveying the different armed groups and types of weapons involved. It argues that a key element of addressing insecurity and armed violence is comprehensive security sector reform. A political solution is the only way to resolve the rising armed violence.

Author: Jennifer M. Hazen | Jonas Horner Source: Hazen, J., 2007, 'Small Arms, Armed Violence, and Insecurity in Nigeria: The Niger Delta in Perspective', Occasional Paper No. 20, Small Arms Survey, Geneva Size: 88 pages (1.1 MB)
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What policies make for successes and for failures in security sector reform (SSR) in post-war reconstruction situations? This book chapter, published by the Institute for Security Studies in Pretoria, critically examines the case of Sierra Leone, which undertook to rebuild state security with extensive international assistance. One of the principal arguments is that the process of SSR reform must be spearheaded and owned by Sierra Leoneans themselves in order to be sustainable.

Author: Osman Gibla Source: Gbla, O., 2007, 'Security Sector Reform in Sierra Leone', in ISS Monograph Series No. 135: Challenges to Security Sector Reform in the Horn of Africa, eds. L. Le Roux and Y. Kidane, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, pp. 13-36 Size: 24 pages (163 kB)
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What are the challenges of security sector (SSR) reform in West Africa? This Institute of Security Studies paper argues that challenges range from the concept of security to the freedom from dependency on the West in terms of strategic thinking and funding. The SSR agenda must concentrate on public safety, especially in urban areas. This will form a solid foundation for the internal stability that is needed for political, social and economic development.

Author: Ishola Williams Source: Williams, I., 2007, 'The Challenges of Security Sector Reform in West Africa', in ISS Monograph Series No. 135: Challenges to Security Sector Reform in the Horn of Africa, eds. L. Le Roux and Y. Kidane, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, pp. 37-50 Size: 14 pages (107 kB)
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What assistance do East African states require to effectively address the illicit trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW)? What are the challenges facing such SALW assistance? Drawing on a case study of East Africa, this report from the UN Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) discusses international assistance for implementing the UN Programme of Action (UNPoA) on the Illicit Trade in SALW. It finds that while East African states are acting against the illicit SALW trade, lack of capacity means that long-term success cannot be assured. A strong administrative and governing sector is essential to sustain the benefits of any initiative to address the illicit trade in SALW and to deter the types of SALW crime that flourish as a result of weak infrastructure. International assistance and improving the allocation and coordination of that assistance to address SALW is necessary to make sure that East African states' efforts are not in vain.

Author: Kerry Maze | Hyunjoo Rhee Source: Maze,K.,Rhee,H., 2007, 'International Assistance for Implementing the UN Programme of Action on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects: Case Study of East Africa' , Report prepared for the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) Size: 44 pages (504 kB)
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How can sustainable peace be achieved in the Horn of Africa? This paper by the Institute for Security Studies argues that Security Sector Reform (SSR) is central to stability in the Horn. But any SSR strategy must be based on a thorough understanding of the regional and national contexts. This will require all stakeholders to work in a participative manner. Crude, incomplete analyses are unproductive and can undermine the whole process of reform.

Author: Medhane Tadesse Source: Tadesse, M., 2007, 'Overcoming Challenges for Security Sector Reform in the Horn of Africa', in Len le Roux and Yemane Kidane (eds) Challenges to Security Sector Reform in the Horn of Africa, Monograph No 135, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria Size: 15 pages (100KB)
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What factors have influenced the reintegration into society of ex-combatants from the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA)? This monograph from the Institute for Security Studies assesses the reintegration of ex-UNITA combatants in three of the most contested provinces in Angola's civil war. It examines the relationship between reintegration, on the one had, and vulnerability, identity, social capital, sustainable livelihoods and political participation, on the other.

Author: J Gomes Porto | Imogen Parsons Source: Porto J.G., Parsons I., Alden C., 2007, 'From Soldiers to Citizens - The Social, Economic and Political Integration of UNITA Ex-Combatants', Monograph 130, Instutute for Security Studies Size: 171 pages (1.21 MB)
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What political, financial and logistical considerations are key to ensuring the success of Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programmes? This paper from the Danish Institute for International Studies reviews the lessons learnt from the recent DDR process in Afghanistan. It argues that the programme was a relative success, supported by a unified control structure, flexible funding and strong national ownership. However, the programme also suffered from undue politicisation, unrealistic targets and an inadequate public information campaign.

Author: Peter Dahl Thruelsen Source: Thrueson, P. D., 2006, 'From Soldier to Civilian: Disarmament Demobilisation Reintegration in Afghanistan', DIIS Report 2006, no. 7, Danish Institute for International Studies, Copenhagen. Size: 60 pages (607 kB)
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What is the most effective form of aid for countries undergoing the immediate transition from war to peace? Can direct cash transfers to ex-combatants be successfully employed as part of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) assistance packages? This Overseas Development Institute paper examines empirical evidence of cash transfer programmes in West Africa. It argues that cash transfers can indeed be a successful tool when used in the immediate 'reinsertion', or post-demobilisation stage of the transition process. However, success depends on appropriate choices on how to implement the cash transfer package. Inappropriate implementation can have negative implications for local, national and regional security and development.

Author: Sigrid Willibald Source: Willibald, S., 2006, 'Does Money Work? Cash Transfers to Ex-combatants in Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration Processes', Disasters, vol. 30 pp. 316-339, September Size: pages (1.7 MB)
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Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) processes play a critical role in transitions from war to peace and are integral to peacekeeping operations and post-conflict reconstruction. Implementation of DDR programs, however, remains problematic. This briefing note from the Netherlands Institute of International Relations (Clingendael Institute) addresses some problems that practitioners will encounter with DDR program design and implementation. Providing guidance questions and an overview of lessons learned from recent experience, it recommends that DDR be seen as part of a broader political process. DDR should be tailored to local political and economic situations and be embedded within a comprehensive framework for enhancing security, peace consolidation and economic recovery.

Author: Nicole Ball | Luc van de Goor Source: Ball, N. and Goor, L. van de, 2006, 'Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration: Mapping Issues, Dilemmas and Guiding Principles', Clingendael Security and Conflict Programme, August Size: 28 pages (107 KB)
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What challenges are faced by the European Union (EU) in terms of its future engagements in Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR)? This concept from the EU is based on lessons learned in the International Community. It aims at ensuring a common understanding with potential partners and includes clear principles for EU support and measures for strengthening the Union's work in this area.

Author: Source: European Union, 2006, 'EU Concept for support to Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR)', European Commission and Council of the European Union, Brussels Size: 27 pages (116 kB)
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Regional Micro-Disarmament Standards/Guidelines (RMDS/G) provide a framework for small arms and light weapons (SALW) control activities in south-eastern Europe. This guide from the South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SEESAC) defines the role of RMDS/G and establishes principles for their use in SALW control activities.

Author: SEESAC Source: SEESAC, 2006, 'Guide to Regional Micro-Disarmament Standards / Guidelines (RMDS/G) and SALW control measures (4th edition)', South Eastern and Eastern Europe Clearinghouse for the Control of Small Arms and Light Weapons, Belgrade Size: 28 pages (563 kB)
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Development planners regularly use participatory approaches in the design, implementation and evaluation of their projects. Disarmament specialists, however, have tended to underestimate the potential importance of participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) to disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) and arms reduction. This report from the United Nation Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) summarises the findings of a UNIDIR research project on PM&E and DDR and arms reduction. Carried out in Mali, Cambodia and Albania, the project generated a number of findings, with far-reaching implications for those supporting DDR and arms reduction.

Author: Robert Muggah Source: Muggah,R., 2006, 'Listening for Change: Participatory Evaluations of DDR and Arms Reduction in Mali, Cambodia and Albania', United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, UNIDIR/2005/23, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 50 pages ()
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How can Afghanistan's private sector contribute to peacebuilding? Why has the peacebuilding potential of the Afghan business community not been realised? This case study from the International Alert publication Local Business, Local Peace examines the peacebuilding efforts and potential of the domestic private sector in Afghanistan. It argues that uncertainties about laws, access to land, power supplies and security have prevented Afghanistan's private sector from fulfilling its peacebuilding potential. In addition, the actions of international NGOs have sometimes hindered the involvement of the Afghan business community in peacebuilding.

Author: Antonio Giustozzi Source: Giustozzi, A. (2006). 'Afghanistan: exploring the peacebuilding potential of the private sector', in International Alert (2006) 'Local Business, Local Peace: the Peacebuilding Potential of the Domestic Private Sector', International Alert, pp. 208-233 Size: 27 pages (117 kB)
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How are disarmament and development connected at the field level? What are the challenges facing efforts to establish a mutually beneficial relationship between the two fields on the ground? Between 2002 and 2004, the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) conducted studies of weapons for development programmes in Albania, Cambodia and Mali. Based on these studies, this paper from UNIDIR examines the interplay between development and disarmament at the community level. It demonstrates a clear link between disarmament and development, as well as the importance of strengthening this link to promote sustainable human development.

Author: Shukuko Koyama Source: Koyama, S. (2006). 'Disarmament, development and the Programme of Action. Experiences and challenges on the ground', Disarmament Forum, 2006(1), pp.75-82, United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) Size: 8 pages (95 kB)
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How was disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) of ex-combatants carried out in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa? What lessons do the experiences of DDR processes in those three countries hold for those undertaking DDR in future? This paper from the Institute for Security Studies reviews DDR processes and their outcomes in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa. It finds that the reintegration component of DDR was inadequately addressed in all three countries, with negative consequences for security.

Author: Gwinyayi Albert Dzinesa Source: Dzinesa, G.A. (2006). 'Swords into ploughshares: Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa', ISS Paper 120, Institute for Security Studies Size: 12 pages (251 kB)
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What impact has irresponsible arms sales had on people's lives in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)? How have groups that commit human rights violations been able to obtain weapons? This report from the Control Arms campaign examines the supply of arms to the DRC and its effect on individual lives and communities. It argues that arms transfers are fuelling atrocities in the DRC and many other countries. Governments must take responsibility for the supply of arms, by agreeing a new international arms trade treaty.

Author: Joshua Marks Source: Marks, J. (2006). 'The call for tough arms controls: Voices from the Democratic Republic of the Congo', Control Arms Campaign, Amnesty International, the International Action Network on Small Arms, and Oxfam International Size: 22 pages (581 kB)
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What impact have irresponsible arms sales had on people's lives in Haiti? How have groups that commit human rights violations been able to obtain weapons? This report from the Control Arms campaign examines the supply of arms to Haiti and its effect on individuals and communities. It argues that irresponsible arms transfers are fuelling atrocities in Haiti. Governments must take responsibility for the supply of arms, by agreeing a new international arms trade treaty.

Author: Amnesty International | International Action Network on Small Arms Source: Control Arms (2006). 'The call for tough arms controls: Voices from Haiti', Control Arms Campaign, Amnesty International, the International Action Network on Small Arms, and Oxfam International. Size: 24 pages (394 kB)
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The international community has yet to develop a coherent strategy for the execution of security sector reform (SSR) in peace operations. This paper, published by the United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations (UNDPKO), examines SSR in both UN and non-UN peace operations. SSR in peace operations is as much about processes, policies, institutions, legislation and political will as it is about training and equipping police officers, customs officials and soldiers.

Author: Edward Rees Source: Rees, E. (2006). 'Security Sector Reform (SSR) and Peace Operations: Improvisation and Confusion From the Field', United Nations Department of Peacekeeping Operations. Size: 28 pages (316.22 kB)
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What were the motives of girls who fought in the Liberian civil war and how can the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) process address their needs better? This International Labour Office study argues that there are a number of misconceptions surrounding the enlistment of girl combatants. The study examines the motives of Liberian girls for taking up arms and highlights the key issues for improving gender sensitive prevention and reintegration policies.

Author: Irma Specht Source: Specht, I., 2006, 'Red Shoes: Experiences of girl-combatants in Liberia', International Labour Office, Geneva Size: 133 pages (1.27MB)
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How realistic is the process of defence reform and conversion planning and how efficient are the institutional frameworks for reform in Albania, Macedonia and Croatia? What is the role of external support and are sufficient resources available for defence reform in these countries? This briefing from the Bonn International Center for Conversion analyses the development, achievements and shortcomings of defence reform and conversion in Albania, Macedonia and Croatia. It finds that they have achieved differing degrees of success in restructuring their armed forces, reintegrating ex-military personnel and converting military sites for civilian purposes.

Author: Tobias Pietz Source: Bonn International Centre for Conversion, 2006, 'Defense Reform and Conversion in Albania, Macedonia and Croatia', Brief 34, BICC, Bonn Size: 78 pages (649 kB)
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How can the violence inflicted by small arms best be controlled? This paper, by the Small Arms Survey and the Quaker United Nations Office, looks at how the proliferation of small arms is driven not only by supply but also by demand. It argues that effective and sustainable programmes aimed at reducing the human impact of small arms violence ultimately depend on the reduction of demand.

Author: David Atwood | Anne-Kathrin Glatz Source: Atwood, D., Glatz, AK. & Muggah, H., 2006, 'Demanding Attention: Addressing the Dynamics of Small Arms Demand', Small Arms Survey and QUaker United Nations Office (QUNO), Occasional Paper No. 18, USA Size: 88 pages (1.8MB)
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Despite multilateral attempts in the 1990s to institute security sector reform (SSR) in Haiti, lack of elite support, insufficient judicial sector capacity and persistent corruption has led to the current resurgence of violence. This study, published by International Peacekeeping, examines recent international interventions to institute SSR in Haiti. National dialogue with local elites and long-term donor involvement are necessary to ensure that justice, security, development and governance sectors are developed simultaneously to prevent the country from becoming a failed state.

Author: Johanna Mendelson-Forman Source: Mendelson-Forman, J, 2006, 'Security Sector Reform in Haiti', International Peacekeeping, vol.13, no.1, pp.14-27 Size: 27 pages (84.62 kB)
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How can the Haitian government and international community reduce violence and promote sustainable reform in Haiti? This paper, by Action Aid, analyses the current situation in Haiti and makes recommendations for changes to the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH), based on what is feasible and can be realistically implemented in the existing circumstances. Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) and rule of law are critical to ensure sustainable peace; therefore MINUSTAH and the new Haitian government must renew their focus on these priorities.

Author: ActionAid Source: Action Aid, 2006, 'MINUSTAH: DDR and Police, Judicial and Correctional Reform in Haiti', Action Aid, Port-au-Prince Size: 26 pages (3.5 MB)
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What are the critical issues for security sector reform (SSR) in Liberia? The Governance Reform Commission (GRC) set up by the president of Liberia to provide professional and intellectual leadership of Liberia's security sector reform (SSR) has assessed the country's security sector and reviewed existing legislation. It concludes that the SSR process in Liberia is taking place within very volatile, uncertain and fragile internal and external security environments. The precarious position makes the task of SSR challenging, necessary and relevant.

Author: Thomas Jaye Source: Jaye, T., 2006, 'An Assessment Report on Security Sector Reform in Liberia', Governance Reform Commission of Liberia, Monrovia Size: 20 pages (240.2KB)
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What are the chances of Liberia achieving stability after 14 years of war? What would be the consequences of new stability? This paper, by the International Crisis Group, argues that if Liberia becomes stable it will shore up the fragile peace in Sierra Leone and diminish the probability of armed conflict in Guinea. However, if a sensitive partnership between government and donors fails to materialise, Liberia will be in a difficult position and one that might open the door for a future, disastrous insurgency.

Author: International Crisis Group Source: International Crisis Group, 2006, 'Liberia: Staying Focused', Africa Briefing N°36, 13 January 2006, International Crisis Group, Dakar/Brussels Size: 16 pages (323KB)
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What is the current situation regarding the use of child soldiers in West Africa? How can Disarmament Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programmes reach all children who need them? This report by the Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers surveys DDR projects carried out in Cote d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone. West Africa is one of the regions of the world worst affected by the practice of child soldier recruitment. Many children are left outside official DDR programmes through access difficulties facing certain vulnerable groups or because agencies limit their definition of 'child soldier' to those who bear arms. DDR processes must adopt the Cape Town Principles in defining beneficiaries and pay special attention to girls, adolescents, young adults, foreign children, refugees, and those who 'informally' demobilise.

Author: Guillaume Landry Source: Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, 2006, 'Child Soldiers and Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration in West Africa', Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, Dakar Size: 31 pages (227 kB)
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The British government's political, financial, logistical and security support to Sierra Leone has been critical in restoring peace. But will it lead to wider economic, political and social improvement? This article assesses security sector reform (SSR) in Sierra Leone. It suggests that the costs of SSR have been huge and, although successful, Sierra Leone is still near the bottom of the human development index and the peace remains fragile.

Author: Adrian Horn | Funmi Olonisakin Source: Horn, A. et al., 2006, 'United Kingdom-led Security Sector Reform in Sierra Leone', Civil Wars, vol.8 no.2, pp.109-123 Size: 16 pages ()
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How successful has Sierra Leone been in reforming its security sector? This paper, by the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, assesses the main elements of security sector reform (SSR) in Sierra Leone. It suggests that SSR has increased public safety and enhanced the country's poverty reduction strategy. However, the security sector has not been adequately embedded in a democratic governance framework. SSR can be successful only as part of an overarching democratic post conflict reconstruction framework.

Author: Adedeji Ebo | Taylor & Francis Source: Ebo, A., 2006, 'The challenges and Lessons of Security Sector Reform in Post-conflict Sierra Leone', Conflict, Security and Development, vol. 6, no.4, pp. 481-501 Size: 22 pages ()
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What is the effect of security sector reform (SSR) on democratic transitions in conflict-prone countries? This study from Bradford University examines the issue with the example of Sierra Leone. It argues that it is important to find ways of addressing shortcomings in SSR and to adopt approaches that engage civil society and increase civil protection, ameliorate tensions between the army and armed groups. SSR needs to be linked more effectively to justice, reconciliation and democratisation initiatives.

Author: Jeremy Ginifer Source: Ginifer, J., 2006, 'The Challenge of the Security Sector and Security Reform Processes in Democratic Transitions: The Case of Sierra Leone', Democratization, vol. 15 no.5, pp. 791-801 Size: 21 pages (160 kB)
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What are the main sources of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) in the Kenya-Uganda border area? What is driving the demand for arms in the region? This article from African Affairs argues that demand for SALW is driven by both lack of security and lack of livelihoods. Sources of SALW include paramilitary groups created by the Ugandan and Kenyan governments.

Author: Kennedy Agade Mkutu Source: Mkutu, K. ,2006, 'Small Arms and Light Weapons among Pastoral Groups in the Kenya-Uganda Border Area', African Affairs , Vol.106, no. 422, pp.47-70 Size: pages ()
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Rebuilding a post-conflict country is more than restoring buildings and institutions; it involves restoring trust and confidence, fostering relationships and giving people hope. This report, published by Interpeace, reviews its Somali Dialogue for Peace programme, a consultative process that brought officials, ex-combatants and citizens together to plan a collective, peaceful future. Dialogue with civil society and citizens is critical to the establishment of a stable and long-term security structure in Somalia.

Author: Interpeace | Centre for Research and Dialogue Source: Interpeace and Center for Research and Dialogue Somalia, 2006, 'Dialogue not Guns: Promoting Security and Stabilisation among the Communities of South-Central Somalia', Interpeace and Center for Research and Dialogue Somalia Size: 43 pages (1.43 MB)
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Recent studies show the increasing extent that women operate as combatants in (ir)regular armies in conflict. How can disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes become more gender-sensitised? This study by the Clingendael Institute examines men and women's active involvement in warfare, their gender-specific roles and gender relations within armies and discusses the challenges for DDR programmes in targeting female ex-combatants.

Author: Tsjeard Bouta Source: Bouta, T., 2005, Gender and Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration, Netherlands Institute of International Relations, "Clingendael", The Hague Size: 37 pages (128KB)
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Has the Ituri Disarmament and Community Reinsertion (DCR) programme stabilised the North-eastern region of the Democratic Republic of Congo? What policy considerations should be taken into account to strengthen the programme? This report by the Clingendael Institute of the Netherlands and the Africa Initiative Programme analyses the current situation of the DCR programme and describes the challenges it faces. In particular, it discusses the difficult decision of moving from voluntary to forced disarmament and demobilisation.

Author: Tsjeard Bouta Source: Bouta, T., 2005, 'Assessment of the Ituri Disarmament and Community Reinsertion Programme (DCR)', Clingendael Institute Conflict Research Unit, Netherlands Institute of International Relations, The Hague Size: 33 pages (108 KB)
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Policy analysts have debated the organisational factors that contribute to successful disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes, but little is known about the factors that account for success at the micro level. What are the individual level determinants of successful demobilisation and reintegration? This research from the Centre for Global Development finds that an individuals' prospects of gaining acceptance depends largely on the abusiveness of the unit in which he or she fought. There is no evidence that participation in internationally funded DDR programs improves an individual's chance of acceptance by their families or communities.

Author: Jeremy Weinstein | Macartan Humphreys Source: Weinstein, J., and Humphreys, M., 2005, 'Disentangling the Determinants of Successful Demobilization and Reintegration,' Center for Global Development Working Paper Number 69, United States Size: 30 pages (220kB)
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How can peacebuilding missions more effectively address security threats in post-conflict societies? This paper from the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces argues that a security governance approach to post-conflict states provides a more comprehensive peacebuilding strategy. By acknowledging the diversity of actors and issues involved in the insecurity of war-torn societies, this perspective offers a better chance of assuring the accountability, legitimacy and local ownership of peacebuilding operations.

Author: Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed | Timothy Donais Source: Bryden, A., Donais, T. and Hanggi, H., 2005, 'Shaping a Security Governance Agenda in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding', Policy Paper no. 11, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF), Geneva Size: 36 pages (421kB)
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How effectively have disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) programmes and weapons reduction initiatives managed the transition from war to peace in post-conflict societies? How can future interventions maximise the chances of securing peace? This chapter from a work published by the Small Arms Survey examines the history of DDR and weapons reduction programmes to identify lessons learnt during past interventions. It argues that future programmes need to exhibit clearer objectives, better co-ordination and improved integration into broader political and developmental reforms.

Author: Robert Muggah Source: Small Arms Survey, 2005, 'Managing 'Post-Conflict' Zones: DDR and Weapons Reduction', Chapter 10 in 'Small Arms Survey Yearbook 2005: Weapons at War', Small Arms Survey, Geneva Size: 36 pages (1.31MB)
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How should disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) be financed? What problems can be encountered and how can these be overcome? This paper constitutes the second part of a review from the Stockholm Initiative on Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (SIDDR). It provides a sobering assessment of the capacity of the international community as a whole to finance DDR processes in the context of contested peace processes.

Author: Nicole Ball | Dylan Hendrickson Source: Ball, N. and Hendrickson, D., 2005, 'Review of International Financing Arrangements for Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration', Phase 2 Report to Working Group 2, SIDDR, Stockholm Size: 2 pages (1.9 MB)
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Post-conflict peacebuilding has become a primary concern of international politics. This book, produced by the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, applies a security governance perspective to a number of key issues that must be addressed by both post-conflict societies and the international community in the task of rebuilding after armed conflict. These include security sector reform (SSR), disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR), and the rule of law and transitional justice. Integrated, holistic and long-term approaches to security governance in post-conflict peacebuilding are emphasised as critical.

Author: Alan Bryden | Heiner Hänggi Source: Bryden, A. and Hänggi, H. (eds). (2005). 'Security Governance in Post-Conflict Peacebuilding', DCAF Yearbook 3, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) Size: 300 pages (812kB)
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What progress did the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) make in building Iraqi security forces and institutions? This report from the RAND Corporation examines the CPA's efforts to reconstruct and reform the Iraqi security sector. It finds that the CPA's security sector capacity-building and reform programme, while behind on many of its targets, was moving in the right direction.

Author: Andrew Rathmell | Olga Oliker Source: Rathmell, A., Oliker, O., Kelly, T.K., Brannan, D. and Crane, K. (2005). 'Developing Iraq's Security Sector: The Coalition Provisional Authority's Experience', Report prepared for the Office of the Secretary of Defense, RAND National Defense Research Institute, RAND Corporation Size: 123 pages (387 kB)
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What steps has the government of Colombia taken to demobilise right-wing paramilitaries and individual fighters and reintegrate them into society? What are the problems and risks involved in Colombia's disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) process? This paper from the Bonn International Center for Conversion examines the DDR process in Colombia. While DDR could have a significant positive impact on the conflict in Colombia, failure is still possible and could have significant negative repercussions.

Author: Markus Koth Source: Koth, M. (2005). 'To End a War: Demobilization and Reintegration of Paramilitaries in Colombia', Paper 43, Bonn International Center for Conversion Size: 62 pages (263 kB)
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What support has the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) provided to countries attempting to address small arms issues? How has UNDP's support evolved as a result of experience gained and lessons learned from its projects? This report from UNDP provides an overview of UNDP's support for addressing small arms issues. UNDP has provided support to small arms control, armed violence reduction and disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) initiatives in over 40 countries. Lessons learned have enabled UNDP to refine its support to address more effectively the needs of countries affected by small arms issues.

Author: Peter Batchelor | Spyros Demetriou Source: Batchelor, P. and Demetriou, S. (2005). 'Securing Development: UNDP's support for addressing small arms issues', United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Size: 41 pages (699 kB)
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Every year thousands of children are recruited to be child soldiers. Those who recruit them are not brought to justice. This paper, by the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, argues that the international community needs to move from law making, programme development and training, to law enforcement, implementation, monitoring and reporting.

Author: Lilian Peters Source: Peters, L. (2005). 'War is no Child's Play: Child Soldiers from Battlefield to Playground', Occasional Paper 08, Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF). Size: 60 pages (852KB)
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How has Colombia reoriented its approach towards the country's principal security challenge - a lengthy insurgency closely linked to criminal activity? Published by the Strategic Studies Institute at the U.S. Army War College, this paper assesses the sustainability of the counterinsurgency waged by Colombian President Alvaro Uribe against FARC rebels. Although not yet complete, this multifaceted campaign is likely to result in a Colombia that is more integrated, prosperous and democratic than at any time in the past 40 years.

Author: Thomas Marks Source: Marks, T., 2005, ' Sustainability of Colombian Military/Strategic Support for '"Democratic Security"', Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College, Carlisle Size: 45 pages (241 kB)
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Building post-conflict peace in Liberia has proved to be extremely difficult for the UN Mission in Liberia (UNMIL). This paper argues that the only way forward is to undertake comprehensive security sector reform (SSR), to pay attention to the establishment of functional and professional security forces, as well as to foster democratic civil-military relations informed by the rule of law and respect for human rights. This is particularly important because Liberia is linked with conflicts in Sierra Leone, Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea.

Author: Festus B Aboagye | Martin R Rupiya Source: Aboagye, F. and Rupiya, M., 2005, 'Enhancing Post-Conflict Democratic Governance Through Effective Security Sector Reform in Liberia' in A Tortuous Road to Peace, eds. F. Aboagye and A. Bah, Institute for Security Studies, Pretoria, pp. 249-280 Size: 32 pages (162 KB)
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How can African practitioners and their international partners improve the design, operation and implementation of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes? In June 2005, the UN Office of the Special Adviser on Africa (OSAA) and the Government of Sierra Leone organised a conference on DDR in Africa. This report sets out the deliberations of the conference and the resulting recommendations.

Author: United Nations Source: 2005, 'Disarmament, Demobilization, Reintegration (DDR) and Stability in Africa: Conference Report ', Freetown, 21-23 July 2005, United Nations Office of the Special Advisor on Africa Size: 39 pages (182 kB)
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This article, published in the Third World Quarterly, examines the 'Self-Reliance Strategy' implemented by the Government of Uganda and UNHCR for long-term Sudanese refugees in Uganda, which seeks to move from a relief to a development approach. However, the prospects for success are limited by ongoing conflict in northern Uganda and the lack of rights of long-term exiles - in particular, freedom of movement. Developmental approaches must go beyond a narrow focus on material needs and incorporate an explicit focus on refugee protection.

Author: T. Kaiser Source: Kaiser, T., 2005, 'Participating in Development? Refugee Protection, Politics and Developmental Approaches to Refugee Management in Uganda', Third World Quarterly, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 351-367 Size: 17 pages ()
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Security Sector reform in Nepal is crucial to peace negotiations with the rebel CPN (Maoist) but has seldom been raised as an issue outside it. This paper, published by Friends For Peace, explores the difficulties of implementing Security Sector Reform in Nepal, and makes recommendations as to how these can be overcome. It concludes that mapping SSR in Nepal is a delicate and complex issue, and the loyalty of the security sector to democratic government is still under dispute. It recommends that demobilization of the army and guerillas should be accompanied by the provision of economic opportunities to allow them to reintegrate into society.

Author: Dhruba Kumar | Hari Sharma Source: Kumar D., Sharma H., 2005, 'Security Sector Reform in Nepal: Challenges and Opportunities', Friends for Peace, FFP Publications, Nepal Size: 110 pages (771 kB)
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Providing security and reconstructing internal security institutions is a key component of nation-building operations. This study, by the RAND Corporation, asks how successful have U.S. and allied efforts been in reconstructing internal security institutions, and what are the most important lessons for current and future operations? The authors examine data from efforts to reconstruct internal security in Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq. They then compare the results with data from six other cases in which the United States has helped reconstruct security institutions during nation-building missions. These are Panama, El Salvador, Somalia, Haiti, Bosnia, and East Timor.

Author: Seth G. Jones | Jeremy M. Wilson Source: Jones S.G., Wilson J.M., Rathmell A., Riley K.J., 2005, 'Establishing Law and Order After Conflict', RAND Corporation, London Size: 293 pages (1.4 MB)
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There is a need for more comprehensive solutions to wider security sector challenges in conflict resolution. This report, from the Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform, provides an overview of the security reforms that were implemented in Sierra Leone. It serves as a set of guidelines for practitioners supporting similar programmes in the future. It argues that the different elements of a Security Sector Reform programme should be sequenced strategically.

Author: Ann M. Fitz-Gerald Source: Fitz-Gerald, A.M., 2004, 'Security Sector Reform in Sierra Leone', Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector reform (GFN-SSR), Shrivenham Size: 24 pages (297 KB)
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Successful programmes for the disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) of former combatants are essential for sustainable peace and development. There are a variety of specific instruments and approaches that can support DDR programmes when adapted to the implementation conditions of particular countries. This training book aims to support effective planning by providing a comprehensive overview of all aspects of DDR operations. It is a product of the partnership between the Swedish National Defence College (SNDC), the Norwegian Defence International Centre (FOKIV), the Pearson Peacekeeping Centre (PPC), and the German Technical Cooperation (GTZ).

Author: Colin Gleichmann | Michael Odenwald Source: Douglas, I. et al, 2004, 'Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration: A Practical Field and Classroom Guide', GTZ, NODEFIC, PPC and SNDC Size: 152 pages (1.43 MB)
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International assistance operations still neglect the needs of women and girls in disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) processes. This handbook by Sarah Douglas, Vanessa Farr, Felicity Hill and Wenny Kasuma presents lessons learned and case studies to improve the implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR) 1325 on women, peace and security, particularly its call to make DDR processes more inclusive of women. The handbook includes some suggestions for how to develop standard operating procedures on gender and DDR. Intended for DDR practitioners, it recommends integrating women's needs and perspectives into all phases of DDR.

Author: Sarah Douglas | Vanessa Farr Source: Douglas,S., Farr,V., Hill,F. and Kasuma,W., 2004, 'Getting it Right, Doing it Right: Gender and Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration', UNIFEM, New York, USA Size: 2 pages (29.5kB)
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How can local communities be better integrated into weapon collection and weapons for development (WfD) programmes? This report from the United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) presents the lessons learned from participatory monitoring and evaluation (PM&E) of weapon collection programmes in Mali. It finds that use of participatory procedures, processes and policies give confidence to communities and can lead to greater ease in retrieving illegally held weapons.

Author: Geofrey Mugumya Source: Mugumya,G., 2004, 'Exchanging Weapons for Development in Mali: Weapon Collection Programmes Assessed by Local People', United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research, UNIDIR/2004/16, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 175 pages ()
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Could small arms and light weapons (SALW) reduction programmes help address some of the shortfalls of disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes? How can SALW and DDR programming be better phased and integrated? This briefing from the Centre for International Cooperation and Security examines how SALW programmes can contribute to the effectiveness of DDR in post-conflict reconstruction (PCR).

Author: Jeremy Ginifer | Mike Bourne Source: Ginifer, J. with Bourne, M. and Greene, O., 2004, 'Considering armed violence in the post-conflict transition: DDR and small arms and light weapons reduction initiatives,' a CICS Armed Violence and Poverty Initiative Briefing Paper, September 2004, University of Bradford Size: 13 pages (139 kB)
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How do mercenaries contribute to instability in West Africa? Do they pose a specific threat to Ghana's democratic consolidation? This paper for the Kofi Annan International Peace Training Centre (KAIPTC) analyses the security threat to Ghana posed by possible mercenary action in the context of a period of pre-election tension. The recycling of combatants from one civil war to another poses security threats in West Africa in terms of outbreak or recurrence of civil war. These threats 'spill over' to countries like Ghana which are relatively peaceful and are consolidating democracy and good governance. Early and appropriate response to these threats by Ghana or within the ECOWAS sub-regional framework would enhance both state and human security.

Author: Prosper Addo Source: Addo, P., 2004, 'Mercenarism in West Africa: A Threat to Ghana's Democracy?', Kofi Annan Peacekeeping Training Centre, Accra Size: 14 pages (135 kB)
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This Institute for Security Studies article provides an overview of the security sector reform processes in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The DRC's transitional government faces significant challenges, most notably in the area of security. In particular, the formation of a unified Congolese national army and the necessary disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) processes for the various armed groups are currently the biggest threats to the transitional government.

Author: Henri Boshoff Source: Boshoff H., 2004, 'Overview of Security Sector Reform Processes in the DRC', African Security Review Vol. 13 No. 4, Institute for Security Studies Size: 5 pages (87.3KB)
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The availability of weapons for use by rebels, militias, warlords and insurgents threatens the national security of states and the security of millions of people. This paper, published by the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, discusses armed groups' participation in the arms trade and the consequences of small arms misuse. While international measures address controlling arms supply, strategies are needed that deal directly with armed groups in order to reduce violations of humanitarian law and human rights norms.

Author: David Capie Source: Capie D., 2004, 'Armed Groups, Weapons Availability and Misuse: An Overview of these and Options for Action', Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue, Briefing Paper Size: 14 pages (206 kB)
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What is the state of the Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programme in Angola? What recommendations can be given for the current and future re-integration of post-conflict Angola? This paper written for the Institute of Security Studies looks at the DDR process in Angola, its evolution over decades of civil war, and the lessons which can be drawn from the Angolan experience.

Author: Joao Porto and Imogen Parsons Source: Porto, J. and Parsons, I., 2003, Sustaining the Peace in Angola. An Overview of Current Demobilisation, Disarmament and Reintegration, Instutute for Security Studies, Pretoria. Size: pages ()
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It is widely recognised that illicit exploitation of natural resources and the criminalisation of economic life play a significant role in conflicts. But there is less understanding of how these factors create distinctive obstacles for designing peace processes and building peace. This report synthesises the main themes from an International Peace Academy conference on the challenges war economies pose to peace.

Author: Heiko Nitzschke Source: Nitzschke, H., 2003, 27-29 October, Transforming War Economies: Challenges for Peacemaking and Peacebuilding, Report of the 725th Wilton Park Conference in Association with the International Peace Academy, Wiston House, Steyning. Size: pages ()
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In 2000, The Brahimi Report made recommendations for improving peace operations, but insufficient progress has taken place since. This synthesis report from the Conflict, Security and Development Group at Kings College London explores why this is the case. The report is based on a comprehensive review of three core peace operations in East Timor, Kosovo and Sierra Leone, as well as insights from ongoing operations in Afghanistan. It argues that whilst the continuing relevance of the Brahimi Report needs to be recognised, it does have limitations in light of developments on the ground.

Author: Confict, Security and Development Group Source: Conflict, Security and Development Group (CSDG), 2003, 'A Review of Peace Operations: a Case for Change', CSDG, Kings College, London, UK Size: pages ()
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What effect does small arms violence have on development? How have development agencies and governments sought to tackle small arms use? This chapter from a work published by the Small Arms Survey analyses the social, economic and human cost of small arms use around the world. It argues that such violence causes widespread damage to developing societies, and outlines developmental responses aimed at cutting demand for small arms, regulating their use and destroying surplus stocks.

Author: Small Arms Survey Source: Small Arms Survey, 2003, 'Obstructing Development: The Effects of Small Arms on Human Development', Chapter Four in 'Small Arms Survey Yearbook 2003: Development Denied', Oxford University Press, UK Size: 43 pages (573 kB)
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How is the Global Conflict Prevention Pool (GCPP) facilitating cross-departmental coordination to realise a more strategic and cost-effective UK approach to conflict prevention and reduction? This report from the Department for International Development (DFID), the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (FCO) and the Ministry of Defence (MoD) examines the initial two years of GCPP's work. It highlights programmes supported through geographical, thematic and international strategies.

Author: FCO Source: DFID, FCO and MOD, 2003, 'The Global Conflict Prevention Pool: A Joint UK Government Approach to Reducing Conflict', DFID, FCO and MOD, London Size: 44 pages (1.3 MB)
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Women play essential roles in disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) processes, yet are rarely included in their planning or implementation. This article, by UNIFEM, provides a checklist to assist in designing and realising gender-sensitive short-term DDR goals and envisioning long-term peace support measures. It focuses on how women can be included, recognised and supported in the their roles in DDR processes.

Author: Stephanie Ziebell | Anne Marie Goetz Source: UNIFEM, 2003, 'Gender-aware Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration (DDR): A Checklist', UNIFEM, New York Size: 13 pages (147 kB)
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Despite increasing awareness about the role women play in fighting forces, there are still few gender-based analyses of the differences between the needs of men and women ex-combatants. This Institute for Security Studies paper presents study findings on Ethiopian women ex-fighters' demobilisation and reintegration experiences and the impact of militarisation and politicisation on their lives. The empowerment of these women challenges commonly-held assumptions about child soldiers as victims who are unable to participate fully in their post-conflict societies.

Author: Angela Veale | ISS Source: Veale, A., 2003, From Child Soldier to Ex-Fighter: Female Fighters, Demobilisation and Reintegration in Ethiopia, Institute for Security Studies. Monograph No. 85, Pretoria Size: pages ()
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Small arms and light weapons are an enormous problem. They kill over 300,000 people every year, cause injury to over 900,000 people and affect millions indirectly through the dislocation of communities and destruction of livelihoods. This official UK policy briefing summarises the damage caused by small arms and light weapons and outlines current UK initiatives to combat the problem. There are an estimated 550 million small arms and light weapons: One for every 10 people on the planet. Small arms and light weapons are also cheap, durable, robust, easy to manufacture and copy and have a long lifespan. It is difficult to achieve effective controls: The manufacture and trade of small arms and light weapons is decentralised, and illicit transfers are believed to account for a significant proportion of the global trade - a market which is thought to be worth over one billion dollars annually. The proliferation of small arms and light weapons also has serious development costs: Post-conflict reconstruction and political, social and economic development are undermined, as are the security and stability of the country or region.

Author: Conflict and Humanitarian Affairs Department, DFID Source: DFID 2001, 'Small Arms and Light Weapons: A UK Policy Briefing', Department for International Development, FCO, and Ministry of Defence, London Size: 10 pages (195 kB)
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A comprehensive approach to security sector reform (SSR) includes not only improved use of resources and civilian control, but more competent forces capable of providing genuine security. This brief, published by the Bonn International Center for Conversion, examines SSR from the development perspective and discusses good development practices and obstacles to SSR. Local ownership is critical; top-down development processes that do not incorporate local contexts are unlikely to produce responsive, responsible political institutions.

Author: Herbert Wulf Source: Wulf, Herbert (Ed.) (2000). 'Security Sector Reform', Brief No. 15. Bonn: Bonn International Center for Conversion. Size: 48 pages (637.65 kB)
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Why are security issues important for generating sustainable development? What are the current World Bank activities in this area? How can donors contribute to improving security? This report explores the relationship between security and development. The state of a country's security has a major impact on the Bank's ability to respond to a country's needs. Addressing these concerns has been difficult because understanding the nexus of poverty, insecurity and development, and a strategic approach to dealing with it are still evolving.

Author: World Bank Source: World Bank 1999, 'Security, Poverty Reduction and Sustainable Development: Challenges for the New Millennium', Washington D.C. Size: 40 pages (223 kB)
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The international community increasingly recognises that security sector reform is fundamentally a governance issue. Development practitioners must therefore be centrally involved in this process, alongside a wide range of other actors. Since the 1990s development actors have begun to engage in efforts to strengthen security sector governance. However, this altered approach to security sector reform is very much a work in progress and key questions remain unresolved. In particular, how can the experience that has been gained be translated into good programming?

Author: N Ball Source: Ball, N. 1998 'Spreading Good Practices in Security Sector Reform: Policy Options for the British Government', Saferworld, London. Size: 59 pages ()
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Which programmes can assist states undergoing the transition from war to peace? How can external assistance support this process? For the past three decades, internal strife has wrought havoc on civil society and economic potential throughout much of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Demilitarisation is a precondition for reviving civil society, reducing poverty and sustaining development in the many SSA countries now undergoing the transition from war to peace.

Author: Nat J Colletta | Markus Kostner Source: Colletta, N.J, Kostner, M and Wiederhofer, I. 1996, 'The Transition from War to Peace in Sub-Saharan Africa', Directions in Development, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Size: 80 pages (3.72 MB)
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A successful demobilization and reintegration program (DRP) for ex-combatants is the key to an effective transition from war to peace. How can this best be achieved? This World Bank study looks at DRP in several countries including Ethiopia. It suggests that its success signals the end to organized conflict and thereby provides the security necessary for people affected by war to reinvest in their lives and their country.

Author: Nat J Colletta Source: Colletta, A., Kostner, M. and Wiederhofer, I. 1996, 'Case Studies of War-to-peace Transition: The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda', World Bank Discussion Paper no. 331, Africa Technical Department series, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Size: 376 pages (26.32)
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How do countries deal with armies after war? What is the best way of integrating ex-soldiers into peace-time societies? This World Bank discussion paper assesses demobilisation and reintegration programmes (DRP) in several countries including Namibia. It asks how successful the Namibian government has been in restructuring its public expenditure in favour of poverty-oriented programmes and peace efforts.

Author: Nat J Colletta | M Kostner and I Wiederhofer Source: Colletta, A., Kostner, M. and Wiederhofer, I. 1996, 'Case Studies of War-to-peace Transition: The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda', World Bank Discussion Paper no. 331, Africa Technical Department series, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Size: 376 pages (26.32)
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Fifteen years of civil strife and guerrilla warfare left Uganda with a war-torn economy and society. How successful has its government been in demobilising the army? Has it been able to encourage development? This paper looks at the process by which the Ugandan government has shifted the burden of its public expenditure away from defence and security to social and economic development.

Author: Nat J Colletta | Kostner, M. and Wiederhofer, I Source: Colletta, A., Kostner, M. and Wiederhofer, I. 1996, 'Case Studies of War-to-peace Transition: The Demobilization and Reintegration of Ex-combatants in Ethiopia, Namibia, and Uganda', World Bank Discussion Paper no. 331, Africa Technical Department Series, The World Bank, Washington, D.C. Size: 376 pages (26.32)
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What does a country do with its armed forces after conflict? What are the key issues that need to be addressed to ensure the sustainability of disarmament programmes? How can donors make their assistance more effective? Demilitarisation and disarmament is often part of a wider challenge involving the reconstruction of states that in certain crucial respects can be said to have 'collapsed' or 'failed'.

Author: M R Berdal Source: Berdal, M. R. 1996, 'Disarmament and Demobilisation After Civil Wars: Arms, Soldiers and the Termination of Armed Conflicts', Adelphi Paper 303, International Institute for Strategic Studies, Oxford University Press, Oxford. Size: 88 pages ()
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