Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform (GFN-SSR)

How can links between security and development enhance policies, processes and institutions in developing countries? This paper from the World Bank South Asia Region argues that understanding security risks and designing risk mitigation strategies are crucial to better development outcomes. With appropriate adjustments, traditional economic principles can be applied to the security sector. These include tools relating to public finance management, service delivery and governance.

Author: William Byrd | Stéphane Guimbert Source: Byrd W., Guimbert S., 2009, 'Public Finance, Security, and Development: A Framework and an Application to Afghanistan', Policy Research Working Paper 4806, The World Bank Size: 43 pages (369kB)
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India has exemplary democratic institutions. Why, then, are people's experience of the Indian state often characterised by incompetence, corruption and abuse of power? This paper, by the Accountability Initiative, argues that this is due to a systematic crisis of accountability. It identifies efforts by both civil society and the state to improve accountability. It proposes five crucial areas for future research, analysis and action in order to take the accountability debates forward.

Author: Bala Posani | Yamini Aiyar Source: Posani B., Aiyar Y., 2009, 'State of Accountability: Evolution, Practice and Emerging Questions in Public Accountability in India', Accountability Initiative Size: 45 pages (644kB)
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What are the socio-economic and ecological effects of mass-production in the South for the purpose of matching mass-consumption in the North? This Third World Quarterly article examines the two levels of the process of displacement, which in the current global capitalist order inherently displaces insecurity onto marginalised populations in order to reproduce the social conditions for accumulation at a global level. This illustrates the current crisis as a momentary violation with an existing rational social order, the discourse of security seeks to normalise the global status quo and justify a sequence of actions to securitise it.

Author: Marcus Taylor Source: Taylor M., 2009, 'Displacing Insecurity in a Divided World: Global Security, International Development and the Endless Accumulation of Capital', Third World Quarterly, London: Vol. 30, Issue 1, pp 147 - 162 Size: 17 pages ()
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How is India reforming its security sector and what are the challenges facing security sector reform (SSR) in the country? There is no comprehensive single SSR process in India, but reforms are underway in all key security sectors. These reforms have their root in developments after India's nuclear tests in 1998. They are self-driven, reactive, and piecemeal. Integrated, comprehensive SSR based on a national strategic planning process is needed or the full benefits of reform will be lost.

Author: A. Mallika Joseph Source: Joseph A.M., 2009, 'Leading Ahead, Yet Far Behind: Governance of the Security Sector in India', South Asian Survey, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 231-251 Size: 20 pages (140 kB)
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Why is Security Sector Reform (SSR) so critical for Pakistan? What are its SSR challenges how can these be addressed? Pakistan has suffered recurrent political upheavals and security threats that have undermined attempts to build strong democratic institutions. SSR efforts have been hindered by poor governance, by a lack of governance reform and accountability and by civilian regimes' appeasement of the military. The unprecedented security pressures Pakistan now faces necessitate a more modern and broader approach to security sector governance. Political and economic stability needs to be established by developing and implementing an effective internal security strategy. This should involve ensuring the stringent accountability of Pakistan's intelligence services and police force and changing their image.

Author: Salma Malik Source: Malik, S., 2009, 'Security Sector Reforms in Pakistan: Challenges, Remedies and Future Prospects', South Asian Survey, vol.16, no.2, pp. 273-289 Size: 18 pages (132 kB)
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Is the current financing model for Afghanistan's security sector appropriate? How does it affect incentives around the reform process? This Overseas Development Institute (ODI) paper finds that the current model falls short of good aid effectiveness practice. It implies that donors are perpetuating high levels of aid dependence, not setting strong incentives for institutional reforms and generating fiscal risks for the state. This weakens the state further, increases insecurity and damages the scope for genuine state building.

Author: Manu Manthri Source: Manthri, M., 2008, 'Security Sector Financing and Fiscal Sustainability in Afghanistan', Strategic Policy Impact and Research Unit Working Paper, no. 20, Overseas Development Institute, London Size: 76 pages (857 KB)
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What is the right balance between the size of the security sector required in weak and fragile states and the fiscal sustainability of the sector? How can security and development institutions achieve an effective balance between these considerations? This paper from the Center for International Cooperation and the Political Economy Research Institute outlines a "right-financing" approach to security sector reform (SSR). It argues that right-financing the security sector is a necessity if sustainable solutions for the problems of statebuilding are to be found.

Author: Peter Middlebrook | Gordon Peake Source: Middlebrook, P. and Peake, G., 2008, 'Right-financing Security Sector Reform', Center on International Cooperation and Political Economy Research Institute, USA Size: 16 pages (515 kB)
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Corruption in the defence sector creates a more dangerous, less trustworthy security environment. This paper, published by Transparency International, examines the issue of corruption in defence establishments and recommends ways in which key defence players and civil society could become drivers for reform. Governments, defence companies and the public, now more aware of the financial, social and institutional costs of corruption, are expressing increasing interest in defence sector reform.

Author: | Transparency International Source: Transparency International, 2008, 'Addressing corruption and building integrity in defence establishments', TI Working Paper No. 02/2007, London, UK Size: 8 pages (210.83 kB)
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Kyrgyzstan's judiciary is biased in its arbitration of political and economic disputes. This research from International Crisis Group suggests that if the judiciary is to become an independent branch of government and gain public trust it needs to reform. Reform is essential for a pluralistic and stable political system in the long term. Reform would also reduce corruption and encourage development. Unless the government allows greater self-governance for lawyers and independence for judges, no amount of training will create an effective system.

Author: International Crisis Group Source: International Crisis Group, 2008, 'Kyrgyzstan: The Challenge of Judicial Reform', Asia Report N°150, 10 April 2008, Brussels Size: 30 pages (614 kB)
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How does Colombia's Justice and Peace Law balance the needs for peace and justice? To what extent does the paramilitary demobilisation process meet international standards for justice, truth and reparations? This paper from the Fundación para les Relaciones Internacionales y el Diálogo Exterior examines Colombia's Justice and Peace Law in relation to justice, truth and reparation. It argues that while the law uses the language of human rights and justice, it is lacking in mechanisms to put these principles into practice.

Author: Felipe Gómez Isa Source: Gómez Isa, F., 2008, 'Paramilitary Demobilisation in Colombia: Between Peace and Justice', FRIDE Working Paper 57, Madrid, Spain Size: 28 pages (387 kB)
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How should disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programmes be implemented? This School for a Culture of Peace report argues that DDR should be seen less as a technical procedure and more as a process dependent on the context of where it is implemented. The paper therefore aims to draw lessons from a comparative analysis of DDR programmes in 19 countries.

Author: Albert Caramés | Eneko Sanz Source: Caramés, A. & Sanz, E. (2008) 'DDR 2008: Analysis of Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration (DDR) programmes in the World during 2007', School for a Culture of Peace, Autonomous University of Barcelona, UAB, Spain. Size: 165 pages (1.3 MB)
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A professional, effective, accountable security sector is essential to consolidate peace and security, prevent conflict, and lay the foundations for development and human rights. This report by the UN Secretary-General examines the UN's role in supporting security sector reform, arguing that a coherent UN approach to reform is vital.

Author: United Nations Secretary-General Source: Secretary-General U.N., 2008, 'Securing peace and development: the role of the United Nations in supporting security sector reform', United Nations General Assembly (A/62/659-S/2008/39) Size: 19 pages (93 kB)
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Is India's defence spending affordable? How much can a country afford for its Defence? This Journal of Defence Studies article examines the affordability of India's defence spending, concluding that the burden of the military budget has reduced significantly as GDP and Government revenues have increased.

Author: Laxman Kumar Behera Source: Behera L.K., 2008, 'India's Affordable Defence Spending', Journal of Defence Studies, vol 2 (1), New Dehli Size: 7 pages (284)
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What is the impact of the War of Terror (WOT) on development aid? This study, by the North-South Institute, examines the way in which WOT has affected the orientation and efficacy of official development assistance (ODA). It argues that ODA has become a tool for the realisation of the goals of WOT. Aid for political and security purposes has undermined support for development priorities.

Author: Kwesi Aning Source: Aning, K., (2007), 'Security, the War on Terror and Official Development Assistance', Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, Accra, Ghana Size: 32 pages (343KB)
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What are the priorities for defence institution reform in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia and Moldova? This volume places Partnership Action Plan-Defence Institution Building (PAP-DIB) reform needs in their national and regional contexts and considers common priorities in the region. An attempt to define the status of defence institution building in any nation is a difficult task, as institutionalisation is a complex domain. It is dominated by the dynamics of change which overlap and sometimes blur its perennial aspects.

Author: Philipp Fluri | Hari Bucur-Marcu Source: Fluri, P. and Bucur-Marcu, H. (Eds.) (2007). 'Partnership Action Plan for Defence Institution Building: Country Profiles and Needs Assessments for Armenia, Azerbaidjan, Georgia and Moldova', Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) & The Partnership Action Plan on Defence Institution Building (PAP-DIB). Size: 42 pages (221kb)
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How should local ownership be promoted as part of justice and security sector reform? This handbook, by the Folke Bernadotte Academy, suggests ways of putting the principle of local ownership into practice. Transferring the responsibility for rule of law to local stakeholders is complicated but essential. It is important to build the capacity of local people to drive change and sustain efforts to strengthen the rule of law.

Author: Annika S. Hansen, Sharon Wiharta, Bjørn R. Claussen, Stian Kjeksrud Source: Hansen, A.S. and Wiharta, S with Claussen, B. R. and Kjeksrud, S., 2007, 'The Transition to a Just Order - Establishing Local Ownership after Conflict: A Practitioners' Guide', Handbook Series, Folke Bernadotte Academy, Sweden Size: 82 pages (1.2 MB)
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Afghans see their police more as a source of fear than security. But Afghanistan needs a police service not a police force. This research by International Crisis Group argues that policing goes to the very heart of state-building since a national institution that provides security and justice is central to government legitimacy. Police reform should focus on accountability, ethnic representation and professionalism. It should also depoliticise and institutionalise appointments and procedures. The police should not be used to fight the insurgency.

Author: International Crisis Group Source: International Crisis Group, 2007, 'Reforming Afghanistan's Police', Asia Report N°138, International Crisis Group, Brussels/Kabul Size: 35 pages (731 kB)
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What are the experiences in regional approaches to security sector governance in Africa, the Americas and Europe? What lessons can be drawn for promoting good and democratic governance of security sector institutions in these and other regions? This book by the Geneva Centre for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF) compares and assesses regional security sector governance approaches. The model of the Organisation for Security Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) is the most advanced of its kind and has inspired African and American approaches. Emphasis must be placed on civilian participation and democratic objectives as opposed to military solutions implicit in the war-on-terrorism agenda

Author: Victor-Yves Ghebali | Alexandre Lambert Source: Ghebali, V. & Lambert, A. (eds.), 2007, 'Democratic Governance of the Security Sector beyond the OSCE Area : Regional Approaches in Africa and the Americas', DCAF, Geneva, Switzerland Size: 323 pages (1.35MB)
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What strategies is the Government of Jamaica planning to implement in order to establish a safe and secure environment? The Jamaican Government's National Security Policy sets out an agenda for a prosperous, democratic, peaceful and dynamic society, which upholds the fulfilment of human rights and builds social progress based on shared values and principles of partnership. It argues that for all Jamaicans to enjoy a better quality of life and realise their full potential, everyone must get involved.

Author: Ministry of National Security, Government of Jamaica Source: Government of Jamaica, 2007, 'National Security Policy for Jamaica: Towards a Secure and Prosperous Nation', Government of Jamaica, Kingston Size: 122 pages (399KB)
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How far does Security Sector Reform (SSR) still have to go? Where do private security companies (PSCs) fit into SSR? This SDA-DCAF Roundtable Report looks at the efforts and successes of Europe's government aid donor agencies and NGOs in encouraging the concept and practice of SSR in post-conflict and post-authoritarian states. Furthermore, it discusses contribution made by the growing involvement of PSCs in providing military and civil services, thus contributing increasingly in SSR activities and related reforms. But do their involvement pose more challenges to SSR reform or do they offer real support? The contributions made by the speakers are brought together to offer possible solutions and recommendations to allow SSR a more efficient role in post-conflict and post-authoritarian states.

Author: Security and Defence Agenda Source: Security and Defence Agenda, 2007, 'Roundtable: Security Sector Reform: Public-Private Priorities' SDA Monthly Roundtable, 16 April 2007, Brussels Size: 26 pages (668kB)
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What are the costs and benefits of engagement in regional peacekeeping? Has Ghana been consistent in implementing its foreign policy objectives and the principles of ECOWAS security policies? This paper, for the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre in Ghana, analyses the factors which contribute to Ghana's engagement in regional peacekeeping. Ghana's participation in maintaining sub-regional peace and security has increased since the 1990s, but the country has been inconsistent in its promotion of regional security. There is an urgent need for a comprehensive security document and institutional reform that will incorporate defence, national security, and foreign policies.

Author: Emma Agyakoma Birikorang Source: Birikorang, E., 2007, 'Ghana's Regional Security Policy: Costs, Benefits and Consistency', Kofi Annan Peacekeeping Training Centre (KAIPTC), Accra Size: 16 pages (236 kB)
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How prevalent is corruption in southern Africa? What measures have southern African states put in place to prevent corruption and how effective have they been? Between August and October 2007, Transparency International carried out a study of trends in corruption and measures to prevent it in seven southern African states. This briefing provides an overview of the findings from that study.

Author: Transparency International Source: 2007, 'Corruption risk analysis in Southern Africa', Transparency International Size: pages ()
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What are the policy challenges facing the Indonesian government in its aim of fully financing the military from the governmental budget? This book from the Brookings institution Press focuses on two factors: (a) off-budget revenue-generating activities that enable the armed forces to act independently of the government; and (b) popular pressure to keep the military's share of the central government budget low. The funds generated by the armed forces' business activities are much smaller than is commonly believed, but achieving on-budget financing for the military remains a complex undertaking.

Author: Lex Rieffel | Jaleswari Pramodhawardani Source: Rieffel L., Pramodhawardani J., 2007, 'Out of Business and on Budget: The Challenge of Military Financing in Indonesia', Brookings Institution Press, Washington, D.C. Size: 147 pages ()
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How can economy-related activities help to address the factors that undermine sustainable peace? This report from International Alert centres on economic recovery in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Efforts are needed to promote job creation and shared income-generating opportunities, as well as to address the drivers of conflict and fragility, if long-term economic recovery is to be realised. In order to ensure that assistance contributes positively to transformational peacebuilding, donors must be prepared to bear high transaction costs, particularly in terms of staff on the ground and longer time frames.

Author: International Alert Source: International Alert, 2007, 'Peacebuilding in Eastern DRC: Improving EU Support for Economic Recovery', International Alert, London Size: 32 pages (368 KB)
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While international organisations have concluded that principles of Public Finance Management (PFM) are applicable to all areas of national budgets, few reviews of PFM systems have included the security sector. This report, authored by Peter Middlebrook, Rima Simpson and Karene Melloul, examines a recent World Bank review of Afghanistan's national budget vis-à-vis inclusion of security sector expenditures. Full application of PFM principles in post-conflict national budgets is key to establishing an accountable security sector.

Author: Peter Middlebrook | Rima Simpson Source: Melloul, K., Middlebrook,P. & Simpson,R., 2006 'Post Conflict Security Sector & Public Finance Management', Social Development Report No. 24, World Bank, Washington DC, USA Size: 2 pages (26.5 kB)
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Security sector (SS) spending in Sierra Leone needs to be integrated into all aspects of the country's public finance management (PFM) system. This report, authored by Peter Middlebrook and Sharon Miller, was commissioned by the United Kingdom (UK) Department for International Development (DFID). It charts the current level and structure of security-related expenditures and assesses their strategic coherence, consistency and fiscal sustainability. Without external support, the government of Sierra Leone lacks the fiscal resources to establish sustainable funding of its security sector.

Author: Peter J Middlebrook | Sharon M Miller Source: Middlebrook,P. & Miller,S., 2006, 'Sierra Leone Security Sector Expenditure Review', Prepared for the UK Department for International Development (UK-DFID) Sierra Leone Country Office, Middlebrook & Miller, London, UK Size: 64 pages (887 KB)
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How can the Palestinian government square security sector reform (SSR) and transformation with fiscal stabilisation? This DFID report, written in 2005 just before Hamas won the PLC elections, argues that three competing priorities and intersecting processes - political, economic and security - must be addressed if the chasm between Palestinian SSR and transformation needs, and the Palestine government's current and projected economic deficits, is to be reduced.

Author: Nicole Ball | Peter Bartu Source: Ball, N., Bartu, P. and Verheul, A. (2006). 'Squaring the Circle: Security-Sector Reform and Transformation and Fiscal Stabilisation in Palestine', Report prepared for the UK Department for International Development. Size: 64 pages (513 kB)
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This book aims to be a sourcebook on 'defence institution building', drawing on established practices in Western Europe, but also on recent experiences from among new NATO members. All contributions focus on ongoing defence reform. The picture presented is not universal; North and South, and rich and poor states tend to view security challenges in very different ways. Working together on common problems is the best way to build mutual understanding and trust, these being the essential elements for stability and security.

Author: Wim F Van Eekelen | Philipp H. Fluri Source: Van Eekelen, W.F. and Fluri, P.H. (Eds.) (2006). 'Defence Institution Building : A Sourcebook in Support of the Partnership Action Plan (PAP-DIB)', Landesverteidigungsakademie (Austrian National Defence Academy). Size: 2 pages (29.5kb)
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Sierra Leone exemplifies the important role that an elected, legitimate national government can play in successful peacebuilding and reform efforts. This paper, published by the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, reports the results of a seminar on the country's post-conflict and peacebuilding activities. While the national government's legitimacy and reform strategies are significant post-conflict achievements, it must now implement significant general and security sector reforms.

Author: Peter Albrecht | Mark Malan Source: Albrecht, P. & Malan, M., 2006, 'Post-Conflict Peacebuilding and National Ownership: Meeting the Challenges of Sierra Leone', Report of the Second Annual ZIF/KAIPTC Seminar, Accra, Ghana, 1-3 December 2005, Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre Size: 162 pages (849 kB)
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What are the issues in reforming Turkey's security sector in line with EU accession requirements? This almanac by the Turkish Economics and Social Studies Foundation (TESEV) offers a comprehensive review of Turkey's security sector from a human security perspective. Turkey confronted internal security threats in the 1990s. These led to the adoption of a more militarised strategy and the sidelining of elected bodies, civil society, and the media. After gaining EU candidate status in 1999 and the financial crisis of 2001 serious efforts have been made to democratise the security sector. Despite positive steps, military policies persist behind the formalities of democratic government.

Author: Umit Cizre Source: Cizre, Ü, 2006, 'Almanac Turkey 2005 - Security Sector and Democratic Oversight', DCAF and TESEV Size: 285 pages (3.3 MB)
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How effective was the reform transformation of the Peruvian police between 2001 -2004? This article from Civil Wars journal argues that Peru's police reform process suffered from fluctuating political interest and support. Consequently, although achievements were significant, they were much less than initially hoped. The article examines the host of difficulties faced in achieving reform and concludes that additional resources and consistent political and institutional backing are necessary to foster and sustain transformation.

Author: Gino Costa Source: Costa, Gino, 2006, 'Two Steps Forward, One and a Half Steps Back: Police Reform in Peru, 2001-2004', Civil Wars, vol. 8 no. 2, pp. 215-230 Size: 17 pages (114 kB)
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What are the critical issues for security sector reform (SSR) in Liberia? The Governance Reform Commission (GRC) set up by the president of Liberia to provide professional and intellectual leadership of Liberia's security sector reform (SSR) has assessed the country's security sector and reviewed existing legislation. It concludes that the SSR process in Liberia is taking place within very volatile, uncertain and fragile internal and external security environments. The precarious position makes the task of SSR challenging, necessary and relevant.

Author: Thomas Jaye Source: Jaye, T., 2006, 'An Assessment Report on Security Sector Reform in Liberia', Governance Reform Commission of Liberia, Monrovia Size: 20 pages (240.2KB)
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How are young and fragile democracies in Africa addressing civil-military relations, and military budgeting in particular? This book chapter, published by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, describes the national budgetary process in Sierra Leone, particularly of the military sector, assessing its strengths and weaknesses. Since multiparty democracy was reintroduced in 1996, the situation has significantly improved, especially with the Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF) for budget formulation. Overall, ongoing reforms have made the budgeting process more open, more consultative and, most crucially, driven by clear goals.

Author: Osman Gbla Source: Gbla, O., 2006, 'Sierra Leone', in Budgeting for the Military Sector in Africa: The Processes and Mechanisms of Control, eds. W. Omitoogun and E. Hutchful, SIPRI, OUP, Oxford, pp. 180-196 Size: 17 pages (107 kB)
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How are young and fragile democracies in Africa addressing civil-military relations, and military budgeting in particular? This book chapter, published by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, describes the national budgetary process in Nigeria, particularly of the Nigerian Armed Forces, assessing its strengths and weaknesses. After civilian rule resumed in 1999, the new government pledged military reform and anti-corruption measures, but progress on some issues has been slow. Individual corruption remains an endemic problem for all financial management initiatives. Due process in military budgeting remains a remote prospect given poor oversight, unclear policies and the absence of many key stakeholders.

Author: Wuyi Omitoogun | Tunde Oduntan Source: Omitoogun, W. and Oduntan, T., 2006, 'Nigeria', in Budgeting for the Military Sector in Africa: The Processes and Mechanisms of Control, eds. W. Omitoogun and E. Hutchful, SIPRI, OUP, Oxford, pp. 154-179 Size: 26 pages (154 kB)
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How are burgeoning and fragile democracies in Africa addressing civil-military relations, and military budgeting in particular? This book chapter, published by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, describes the national budget process in Ghana, focussing on the military sector, assessing its strengths and weaknesses. Recent years have witnessed modest improvements on the issues of budgetary process and budget size. The return of parliamentary rule has resulted in somewhat more transparency about military expenditures and made some politicians and military leaders more accountable.

Author: Eboe Hutchful Source: Hutchful, E., 2006, 'Ghana', in Budgeting for the Military Sector in Africa: The Processes and Mechanisms of Control, eds. W. Omitoogun and E. Hutchful, SIPRI, OUP, Oxford, pp. 72-99 Size: 28 pages (170 kB)
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How are burgeoning and fragile democracies in Africa addressing civil-military relations, and military budgeting in particular? This book chapter, published by the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, describes the national budget process in Mali, particularly of the military sector, assessing its strengths and weaknesses. Until 1991, the politics of Mali largely revolved around the relationship of the armed forces to other state institutions. Transition to civilian rule has brought military budgeting under the same guidelines as the overall national budgeting process. Yet there is still official toleration of breaches in how the military organises and implements its budget.

Author: Anatole Ayissi | Nouhoum Sangare Source: Ayissi, A. and Sangaré, N., 2006, 'Mali', in Budgeting for the Military Sector in Africa: The Processes and Mechanisms of Control, eds. W. Omitoogun and E. Hutchful, SIPRI, OUP, Oxford, pp. 122-136 Size: 15 pages (98 kB)
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What role can the domestic private sector play in peacebuilding? This report from International Alert assembles evidence from numerous case studies to demonstrate that local businesses can contribute to peacebuilding. It argues that the international community should embrace the potential of this 'peace entrepreneurship' to provide necessary resources and skills for the promotion of sustainable peace.

Author: International Alert Source: International Alert, 2006, 'Local Business, Local Peace: The Peacebuilding Potential of the Domestic Private Sector (Executive Summary)', International Alert, London Size: 15 pages (393 kB)
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Security is not only a central issue for Afghanistan's reconstruction and development, it has critical implications for the country's management of its public finances. This paper by Peter Middlebrook, Nicole Ball, William Byrd and Christopher Ward, reviews Afghanistan's security sector from the perspective of public finance management (PFM) and development. The Afghan security sector must be integrated into all aspects of the country's PFM system and subject to all budgetary and fiduciary processes.

Author: Peter Middlebrook | Nicole Ball Source: Ball,N., Byrd,W., Middlebrook,P. & Ward,C., 2005, 'Improving Public Financial Management in the Afghan Security Sector', Report No. 34582-AF, World Bank, Washington DC, USA Size: 94 pages (8.55MB)
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While Kenya has instituted widespread defence, police, judicial and constitutional reforms, the probability of successful security sector reform (SSR) remains highly questionable. This paper, published by the Bonn International Center for Conversion, reviews recent attempts by Kenya to make its security sector more effective and accountable and less corrupt. Notwithstanding reform efforts, Kenya's SSR is largely ineffective; the country lacks a constitutional reference point grounded in democratic values.

Author: Bonn International Center for Conversion Source: Bonn International Center for Conversion, 2005, 'Security Sector Reform in Kenya', Inventory of security sector reform (SSR) efforts in partner countries of German development assistance, Bonn International Center for Conversion, Bonn Size: 16 pages (72.7 KB)
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In the wake of the overthrow of Saddam Hussein, two key questions have confronted the Americans and Iraqis who now hold power. How can Iraq be stabilised? How can it be liberalised economically, politically and socially? This report by United States Institute of Peace suggests that although the requirements of stabilisation have so far overshadowed progress toward liberalisation, significant steps have been taken in transitioning from totalitarianism to free market democracy. Much more, however, remains to be accomplished.

Author: Faleh A. Jabar Source: Jabar, F., 2004, 'Postconflict Iraq : A Race for Stability, Reconstruction and Legitimacy', United States Institute for Peace Special Report No. 120 Size: 20 pages (210kB)
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With budget support becoming more important in development cooperation, the principles of sound state budgeting are gaining increasing importance. This study by the Bonn International Center for Conversion (BICC) examines the planning, reporting and control of military expenditures in Ethiopia, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda. It suggests that there is a need to improve public expenditure policy and management in this area.

Author: Michael Brzoska | Marc von Boemcken Source: Brzoska, M. et al, 2004, 'Incorporation of Defense Expenditures into Public Expenditure Work: Short Assessment of the Situation in Ethiopia, Burundi, Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda', Bonn International Center for Conversion, paper 38 Size: 79 pages (774KB)
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What is the state of the security sector in Ethiopia? This Global Facilitation Network (GFN) paper provides an overview of the security sector in Ethiopia. It argues that post-military Ethiopia has come a long way on the path to national reconstruction and transformation. With the growing favourable international environment of donor assistance and good will, the Ethiopian government has a rare opportunity to accelerate the pace of democratic transition.

Author: Jeff Isima Source: Isima, J., 2003, Report on the current position with regard to the security sector in Ethiopia, GFN Paper No. 6, Cranfield University, Shrivenham Size: 17 pages (247KB)
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Does military business matter? What economic, political and military impact does the existence of military business operations have? This book examines the reasons for and impact of military business operations in both peace and war. It argues that military business is important because of its impact on national economies, civil-military relations and the overall defence capabilities of armed forces.

Author: Dr. Jörn Brömmelhörster | Wolf-Christian Paes Source: Brömmelhörster D.J., Paes W., 2003, 'The Military as an Economic Actor: Soldiers in Business', Palgrave Macmillan Size: 30 pages ()
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Off-budget military expenditure is more widespread than is generally recognised. It is a significant problem for both developing countries and the donor community as it undermines macro-economic stability and efforts to promote poverty reduction, and is also an indicator that there are accountability problems with the military.

Author: D Hendrickson | N Ball Source: Hendrickson, D. and Ball, N. 2002, 'Off-budget Military Expenditure and Revenue: Issues and Policy Perspectives for Donors', Conflict Security and Development Group Occasional Papers. Size: 25 pages (130 kB)
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A badly-managed, irresponsible security sector contributes to unstable governments, excessive military expenditures, human rights abuses and intractable poverty. This document, published by the United Kingdom's Department for International Development (DFID), is a set of guidelines for DFID governance advisors and managers considering security sector reform (SSR). It may also assist those working on economic reform, social development and post-conflict reconstruction. SSR programmes should only be considered if they contribute to DFID's primary mission: the reduction of poverty.

Author: DFID Source: DFID, 2002, 'Understanding and supporting security sector reform', DFID, UK Size: 42 pages (232 kB)
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Has globalisation improved democratic development in Thailand since the 1990s? This Contemporary Southeast Asia article studies three of the main actors in the Thai political economy: the military, the private sector and civil society. All have undergone marked changes, and in particular the private sector has been reinvigorated. A new and more sophisticated conjunction has emerged between politics and business. Has the rise of 'money politics' become too forceful an opposition for true democratisation?

Author: Ukrist Pathmanand Source: Pathmanand U., 2001, 'Globalisation and Democratic Development in Thailand: The New Path of the Military, Private Sector, and Civil Society', Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs, Volume 23 (1): pp. 24 - 42. Size: 18 pages ()
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Security is critical for the success of development and development is critical for security. This double proposition was widely supported by the participants of the London Symposium on Security Sector Reform and Military Expenditure (February 2000). Drawing on examples in particular from Sub-Saharan Africa, this UK Department for International Development report examines the questions of how military spending and civil/military relations can be improved and how the reform of the military can take place in light of development policies.

Author: Department for International Development Source: Department for International Development 2000, 'Security-sector Reform and the Management of Defence Expenditure: A Conceptual Framework', Discussion Paper no. 1, Annex 3, pp. 41-57, Security-Sector Size: 16 pages (1.1 MB)
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Is national security defined solely by domestic issues? With a policy emphasis on social welfare and national unity, can the stability of the State be retained at the cost of limited freedom and regulation for its citizens? This Stanford University article tracks the changing approach of the Indonesian government and resultant impact on its people, the region, and the wider international community.

Author: Dewi Fortuna Anwar Source: Anwar D.F., 1998, 'Indonesia: Domestic Priorities Define National Security', in Alagappa, M. (ed.), 'Asian Security Practice: Material and Ideational Influences', Stanford University, California, USA, pp. 477- 512 Size: 19 pages ()
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The Vietnam People's Army (VPA) was founded in 1944, comprising thirty-four people and rudimentary weapons; over the next four decades it grew and modernised to become world's fifth largest military force. The withdrawal of massive Soviet funding in the early nineties meant that the VPA could no longer keep pace with its regional rivals, and defence capability was drastically reduced. What happened to force modernisation in the face of this change? This article from Contemporary Southeast Asia, Volume 19, focuses on development between 1992-1997, and details Vietnam's commitment to industrialisation and modernisation.

Author: Carlye A. Thayer Source: Thayer C.A., 1997, 'Force Modernization: The Case of the Vietnam People's Army', in 'Contemporary Southeast Asia: A Journal of International and Strategic Affairs', Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore, Volume 19 (1), pp. 1-28 Size: 15 pages ()
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Is defense budgeting different from budgeting for other sectors? What constitutes good practice in defense budgeting? How can inadequate defense budgets be addressed? This paper from a staff member at the Center for International Policy, Washington DC looks at defense budgeting in Africa and suggests that sound fiscal management of the entire security sector is essential if a country is to have effective, efficient and professional security forces.

Author: Nicole Ball Source: Ball, N., 2003, March, Managing the Defense Budgeting Process, Paper presented at Lancaster House, London. Size: pages ()
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In recent years, security sector reform has become an important feature of the international development agenda. Yet there are almost no tools to help governments assess the quality of democratic security sector governance, and plan and implement sector reforms. This framework, from the Clingendael Institute, aims to fill that gap by identifying security sector governance needs and developing a strategy to address them.

Author: Nicole Ball | Tsjeard Bouta Source: Ball, N., Bouta, T. and van de Goor, L., 2003, Enhancing Democratic Governance of the Security Sector: An Institutional Assessment Framework, The Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Hague. Size: pages ()
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Does the state's ability to tax create a need to respond to citizens? If a state derives its resources from foreign aid, is it less inclined to consider the needs of the poor? Is there "no taxation without representation?" This paper from the Institute of Development Studies, explores tax collection, authority and legitimacy in South Africa. It suggests a change in tax-payer attitudes is necessary even though, contrary to other developing countries, South Africa has a tax paying culture.

Author: Dumisani Hlophe | Steven Friedman Source: Hlophe, D. and Friedman, S., 2002, '…And their Hearts and Minds will Follow? Tax Collection, Authority and legitimacy in Democratic South Africa', IDS Bulletin, vol. 33, no. 3, pp.67-76. Size: pages ()
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