Global Facilitation Network for Security Sector Reform (GFN-SSR)

Swords into ploughshares: Disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa

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How was disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) of ex-combatants carried out in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa? What lessons do the experiences of DDR processes in those three countries hold for those undertaking DDR in future? This paper from the Institute for Security Studies reviews DDR processes and their outcomes in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa. It finds that the reintegration component of DDR was inadequately addressed in all three countries, with negative consequences for security.

The transitions from armed struggle to independence in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa were characterised by mistrust and animosity, posing challenges to DDR. While the establishment of integrated unitary armed forces and the demobilisation of superfluous fighters were strategic imperatives, reintegration was a neglected aspect of DDR. Government-led reintegration strategies were poorly implemented, creating a gap between disarmament and demobilisation on the one hand and reintegration on the other. While some ex-combatants secured cabinet, government, parastatal or diplomatic posts, the reintegration of most former combatants remained a problem. The failure to reintegrate ex-combatants meant that they continued to threaten national stability, forcing national authorities to implement new reintegration initiatives.

Findings from case studies of DDR in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa include the following:

• The agreement ending Zimbabwe’s war of liberation failed to provide for DDR. Failure to disarm ex-combatants awaiting reintegration resulted in civil conflict, undermining post-independence peace, nation-building and reconstruction.
• Demobilisation and reintegration in Zimbabwe suffered from programmatic and institutional gaps and by 1990 up to 25,000 ex-combatants were unemployed.
• Disarmament and demobilisation were part of the UN’s settlement plan for Namibia. Despite initial problems, the parties’ commitment to the independence process and amenability to UN pressure facilitated significant disarmament and demobilisation.
• Namibia’s successful disarmament and demobilisation was undermined by the independence government’s failure to plan and implement comprehensive reintegration programmes.
• In South Africa, a volatile political and security framework constrained disarmament efforts. Failure to complete disarmament may have contributed to South Africa’s small arms problem.
• One time gratuity payments and a Service Corps training scheme failed to provide sustainable reintegration for ex-combatants in South Africa.

The experience of DDR in Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa provides the following broad lessons which should be considered in future processes:

• Crafters and implementers of DDR should understand the dynamics of the conflict of which the process is a product. DDR should be an integral part of the peace negotiations and agreement and the succeeding peace process.
• DDR should be an interconnected and integrated process with no gap between disarmament and demobilisation on the one hand and reintegration on the other.
• The various stakeholders should follow a comprehensive, coordinated and sustainable approach to DDR.
• The reformulation of the wider economic framework is critical, since DDR is unlikely to succeed in a stagnant or imbalanced economy. Remedial measures that do not disrupt the national economic fabric should be devised for ex-combatants.
• Genuine national reconciliation should be nurtured, as DDR relates symbiotically to post-conflict accommodation. Ensuring the human security of ex-fighters through effective DDR facilitates regime and national security, supporting peace-building.
• While UN peacekeeping operations may have exact mandates to implement under specified timeframes, they should ensure continuity through post-withdrawal synergy with relevant local bodies.

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